Native American http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/ en Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900 http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Tue, 12/01/2009 - 05:00</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> December 2009 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Todd Sanders <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/20" hreflang="en">European settlement</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1" hreflang="en">The First Peoples to 1518</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The study of historic architectural styles provides us a unique way to learn how our ancestors lived and worked, how and what they built, and what they thought about themselves and their society as expressed in their buildings. Mississippi has a wide variety of architectural styles. Here is an overview of them.</p> <h3>Vernacular style</h3> <p>Vernacular architecture is a traditional form of building that reflects local environmental influences, uses locally available building materials, and is passed down from generation to generation.  The earthen mounds built by prehistoric native peoples are Mississippi’s oldest examples of vernacular architecture, if architecture is defined simply as structures built by humans. The mounds were elevated bases for either temples or homes of tribal leaders, or they may have served as elevated ceremonial platforms.  Winterville Mounds near Greenville and Emerald Mound near Natchez are two of the best examples of prehistoric structures in Mississippi.</p> <p>European colonists built the oldest surviving buildings in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Timber was plentiful and early buildings in Mississippi were constructed with heavy timber framing. Brick was used to a lesser extent; very little stone was used since it was difficult and expensive to acquire. </p> <p>The French were the first Europeans to establish permanent settlements on the Gulf of Mexico coastline in 1699 near present-day Ocean Springs, Mississippi, and around 1716 along the Mississippi River at present-day Natchez. The early colonists developed a house form based on their French building traditions, use of local building materials, and construction that made it easier to endure the effects of the hot and humid climate. Their house form is called the Creole Cottage. It is a one-story, or one-and-one-half-story, house that is one-room deep, two or three rooms wide, with an overhanging roof sheltering an undercut front gallery, or porch. It is usually built on a raised foundation.  The back of the cottage might have a rear gallery, but often there is a recessed loggia, a centered small porch open to the outside on only one elevation.  The loggia is flanked by smaller rooms, called cabinet (pronounced kah-be-nay) rooms.  Access to the second, or attic, floor is usually by a ladder or small staircase from the rear loggia or a cabinet room.</p> <p>A good example of a Creole Cottage, and the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley, is the De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi.  It was built around 1770 as part of an early plantation.</p> <p>After 1763, the British were the next Europeans to take control of this area and it became British West Florida. Many settlers of British ancestry moved into the area from the country’s older east coast colonies, or from Britain itself.  Since the Creole Cottage form developed by the French worked very well in the hot humid climate, many elements of the form were retained. The Anglo-American settlers, however, did bring some ideas of their own.  While the Creole Cottage is horizontal in orientation, a long, thin form that appears to hug the ground, the new colonists brought forms that were more vertical.  King’s Tavern, believed to be the oldest standing structure in Natchez, is a good example of this influence.  King’s Tavern is a full two stories and has an attached porch rather than the integral undercut gallery.</p> <p>The British lost control of West Florida to the Spanish during the American Revolution.  In 1790 the Spanish laid out the new town of Natchez on the Mississippi River bluffs.  Prior to this, Natchez consisted only of the settlement along the banks of the river with Fort Rosalie on the bluffs above.  The best example of Spanish Colonial architecture in Natchez is Texada, a town house built in the late 1790s by Manuel Texada.  As originally constructed, this two-and-one-half-story brick house had living quarters on the second floor.  The first floor was built for commercial use.  The town house sits directly adjacent to the sidewalk; the porch is on the rear.  Texada is the oldest surviving brick building in Mississippi.</p> <p>The Spanish left in 1798 when the United States took control of the area and established the Mississippi Territory.  Many settlers from the older, established areas of the United States flowed into the new territory and brought with them their own vernacular architectural traditions.  </p> <p>While the new settlers adopted the Creole Cottage, they too made changes to reflect their traditions, particularly the addition of the center hall, one of the characteristic architectural elements used by the Anglo-American settlers. In a house built along typical Anglo-American lines, the front entrance opens into a wide center hall flanked by one or two rooms.  If there is an upper floor, the staircase usually rises from the center hall. </p> <p>The settlers also brought the log cabin to Mississippi. Introduced to North America by Scandinavian colonists in the 17th century, log construction quickly became popular among all North American colonists since the log cabin made sense in a country with abundant forests.  Consequently, many Mississippians lived in simple one-room log cabins.  Often the early cabins were expanded by the addition of a second cabin connected to the first by an open passage known as a “dog trot.”  A dog trot is different from a center hall although the two are often confused.  A center hall was built as an enclosed room with doors at each end.  A dog trot is an open passageway with no provision made to close off the ends.  Many dog trots were later enclosed however. A more formal house type introduced by the new settlers is the I-House; a two-story, one-room deep house, usually with a center hall. </p> <p>Another vernacular house form built in Mississippi during the 19th century was the Planter’s Cottage.  The Planter’s Cottage is a small, one-, or one-and-one-half, story house with a center hall and usually either one or two rooms deep.  It can be further defined by whether it has a portico or a gallery across the front.  Generally the porticoed version is found in North Mississippi and the galleried version in South Mississippi. The use of the term “Planter’s Cottage” does not indicate that all the houses were built for or occupied by planters.  In fact, many were built in towns and cities for doctors, lawyers, merchants, and other professionals.  The term reflects that this relatively small and modest house form was the most common type found on many Mississippi plantations.  The large two-story, columned mansion, which is often associated with the plantation, is more often found in or near a settlement and are town houses, or suburban villas, rather than plantation houses.</p> <p>These basic vernacular forms dominated Mississippi’s early domestic architecture until after the American Civil War. Other buildings constructed during this earliest period, such as courthouses, schools, stores, banks, and churches, were generally one-room structures devoid of any individual architectural character.</p> <h3>Federal style</h3> <p>The first architectural style to appear in Mississippi was the Federal style.  This style, based on the neo-classical architecture of the British architects Robert and James Adam, was the most popular architectural style along the eastern coast of North America during the early years of the Federal Republic, hence the name Federal style.  It makes use of classical columns and ornament inspired by ancient Roman architecture.  In addition to the classical columns, the Federal style is identified by the use of semi-circular fanlights over doors, oval windows in pediments, and delicately carved interior woodwork. The best Federal style architecture in Mississippi is found in the old Natchez District, the area of Southwest Mississippi centered on Natchez, since it was the wealthiest, most settled area of the state at the time.  The best example of this style is Auburn, a suburban villa constructed near Natchez about 1812.  </p> <p>It was also during the Federal style period that the first substantial public buildings, churches, and commercial buildings began to appear.  The First Presbyterian Church in Natchez and the Presbyterian Church at Rodney are good examples of this style.  </p> <h3>Greek Revival style</h3> <p>In the 1830s, the Greek Revival architectural style first appeared in Natchez and is the style most often associated with the antebellum South.  The Greek Revival style, identified by its tall white columns, is a reinterpretation of the architecture of Ancient Greece, the birthplace of democracy.  The idea of reviving the architecture of ancient democracy in the world’s first modern democracy appealed to early 19th century Americans and became the first style found throughout the country. Greek Revival dominated building in Mississippi until after the Civil War. Ancient Greek temples were built of stone, but Americans usually built their new “temples” of wood or brick, covered in stucco and decorated to look like stone.  The Greek Revival style was used for residences, banks, schools, courthouses, churches, commercial buildings, state capitols, hospitals, and even outhouses.  There are many theories as to why this style remained popular for so long. One of the obvious is that a monumental building could be created with readily available local materials and with relatively modest craftsmanship.</p> <p>The first Greek Revival structure in Mississippi is the Natchez Agricultural Bank of 1833.  It was quickly followed by the houses Ravenna and Richmond, both circa 1835.  The Commercial Bank of 1836, also in Natchez, is the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble façade.  Perhaps the most famous Greek Revival buildings in Mississippi are the Old Capitol, circa 1840, and the Governor’s Mansion, circa 1842.</p> <h3>Gothic Revival style</h3> <p>The first non-classical architectural style to become popular in Mississippi was Gothic Revival.  This style imitated the great stone cathedrals and castles of Europe but was adapted to American needs and materials. The ready availability of lumber and factory-made architectural trim created a distinctly American version of Gothic Revival.  Hallmarks of the style are steeply pitched roofs that give a sense of height and a strong vertical emphasis, elaborate gable decorations, pointed arch windows, board and batten siding, stucco over brick treated to imitate stone, and one-story porches.  The Gothic Revival style was used primarily in Mississippi for churches such as the Chapel of the Cross in Madison, Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, St. Mary’s in Natchez, and the Church of the Annunciation in Columbus.  There were several fine houses built in the style as well, such as the Manship House in Jackson and Airliewood in Holly Springs.</p> <h3>Romanesque Revival style</h3> <p>A related style is the Romanesque Revival style.  Before the Civil War it was used exclusively on churches as an alternative to the Gothic Revival.  The main difference was the use of round or Roman arches instead of the pointed arches of the Gothic.  The best known example of this style in Mississippi is the First Presbyterian Church in Port Gibson.</p> <p>The Romanesque style returned after the war, and while still employed as religious architecture, it found its way into many other building types. No known houses were constructed in this style, however. The style remained popular in Mississippi until the early 1900s. Buildings in this style are usually constructed of brick with low, broad Roman arches, often incorporating patterned masonry over windows and doorways. Some good examples of buildings in the Romanesque style include the Tate County Courthouse at Senatobia, the old Wesson School at Wesson, and Trinity Episcopal Church in Vicksburg.</p> <h3>Italianate style</h3> <p>The Italianate style was the next architectural style to arrive in Mississippi.  Beginning in England with the picturesque movement of the 1840s when builders began to design fanciful recreations of Italian Renaissance villas, Italianate was the most popular house style in the United States by the late 1860s, and remained so in Mississippi until the 1880s. Italianate houses generally have low pitched roofs, wide overhanging eaves with heavy brackets and cornices, and Roman or segmented arches above the doors and windows.  Italianate houses also tend to be more irregular and asymmetrical in plan than earlier styles and often incorporate towers or cupolas.  Italianate was also readily adapted to other building types and was especially popular for commercial buildings.  Among the best of Mississippi’s antebellum Italianate houses are Ammadale in Oxford and Rosedale in Columbus.  Vicksburg has many fine postbellum Italianate houses, such as the Beck House.</p> <h3>Eclectic style</h3> <p>By the mid-1850s, many Mississippians began to meld the Greek Revival style with the Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce a very eclectic style.  While this occurred all across the state, nowhere was it as successful as in Columbus.  Some of the best examples of this type are the Old Fort House and Shadowlawn.</p> <p>After the Civil War ended and Mississippians began to put their lives back together and to repair war-damaged buildings or to build anew, they built at first in one of the many styles popular before the war. It wasn’t long, however, before a new way of building and a new style emerged.</p> <h3>Victorian Vernacular style</h3> <p>As the railroads across the state were repaired and expanded following the war, factory-made building parts could be sent to far corners of the state from virtually anywhere in the country. The rise of industrialization after the war made it easier and more affordable to add decorative details to otherwise simple buildings. A crate of mass-produced decorative trim, such as scrolled brackets, might find its way from Chicago or St. Louis to carpenters in Brookhaven or Iuka where they could mix and match the pieces according to personal whim, or whatever they had on hand. Moreover, sophisticated woodworking machinery was now available. Many buildings and houses were adorned with flat, jigsaw-cut trim in a variety of patterns or they were decorated with spindles or other lathe-turned woodwork. For ease of classification this style is referred to as the “Victorian Vernacular” style. Buildings are usually square or rectangular and symmetrical in shape, often with projecting front wings that give the floor plan the L shape.</p> <h3>Second Empire style</h3> <p>The Second Empire style, a style similar to the Italianate style, made a brief appearance in Mississippi immediately after the Civil War. While this style was developed in France during the reign of Napleon <span class="caps">III</span> in the 1850s and based on the elaborate architecture of 17th century France, it did not reach Mississippi until after the war was over. Once the war ended and new construction began, very few people had the money or interest to build in such an elaborate style. The main feature of this style is the tall mansard roof, and the best example of the Second Empire style in Mississippi is the Schwartz House in Natchez.</p> <h3>Queen Anne style</h3> <p>The first new formal architectural style to arrive in Mississippi after the Civil War was the Queen Anne style. The style originated in Great Britain in the 1870s as a protest over the industrialization of architecture. To find an architectural style that they viewed to be more correctly British, many British architects looked back to styles of the late 17th and early 18th centuries — the era of Queen Anne, hence the name. Ironically, when Queen Anne style became popular in the United States in the 1880s and 1890s, the new technologies of the industrial revolution encouraged builders to use mass-produced pre-cut architectural trim to create fanciful and sometimes flamboyant buildings. As a result, the style was “corrupted” to become what its originators had protested against.</p> <p>The Queen Anne style arrived in Mississippi in the 1880s and remained popular through the early years of the 20th century. In fact, when people use the term “Victorian house” they are usually referring to the Queen Anne style. Queen Anne houses and buildings often have towers, turrets, wrap-around porches, and other fanciful details inspired by the late Gothic and early Renaissance architecture of Great Britain. Among Mississippi’s best houses in the Queen Anne style are the McCloud House in Hattiesburg, the Jones-Biggers House in Corinth, and the Keyhole House in Natchez. The Queen Anne style was used effectively on public and institutional buildings such as the River Commission Building in Vicksburg, Ventress Hall at the University of Mississippi, and the Holmes County Courthouse in Lexington.</p> <p><cite>Todd Sanders is an architectural historian at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History</cite>.</p> <p>*This is the first part of a two-part article on Mississippi architecture. The second part is <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</a>.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>Reference:</h3> <p>Statewide Inventory Files (Historic Preservation Division), Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</p> <h3>Suggested reading:</h3> <p>Crocker, Mary Wallace. <cite>Historic Architecture of Mississippi</cite>. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 1973.</p> <p>Delehanty, Randolph, Van Jones Martin, Ronald W. Miller, Mary Warren Miller, and Elizabeth Macneil Boggess. <cite>Classic Natchez</cite>. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1996.</p> <p>Miller, Mary Carol. <cite>Great Houses of Mississippi</cite>. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 2009.</p> <p>Miller, Mary Carol. <cite>Lost Mansions of Mississippi</cite>. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 1996.</p> <p>Sanders, Todd. <cite>Jackson’s North State Street</cite>. Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2009.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/736.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Creole Cottage&quot;}" role="button" title="The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Creole Cottage&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/736.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Creole Cottage" title="The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/737.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;De La Point-Krebs House&quot;}" role="button" title="The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;De La Point-Krebs House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/737.jpg" width="535" height="358" alt="De La Point-Krebs House" title="The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/738.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;I-House forms&quot;}" role="button" title="Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;I-House forms&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/738.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="I-House forms" title="Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/739.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Planter&#039;s Cottage&quot;}" role="button" title="Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Planter&#039;s Cottage&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/739.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Planter&#039;s Cottage" title="Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/740.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Auburn house&quot;}" role="button" title="Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Auburn house&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/740.jpg" width="535" height="682" alt="Auburn house" title="Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/741.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Ravenna&quot;}" role="button" title="Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Ravenna&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/741.jpg" width="535" height="358" alt="Ravenna" title="Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/742.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Commercial Bank in Natchez&quot;}" role="button" title="The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Commercial Bank in Natchez&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/742.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Commercial Bank in Natchez" title="The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/743.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church&quot;}" role="button" title="Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/743.jpg" width="535" height="677" alt="Grace Episcopal Church" title="Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/744.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Airliewood&quot;}" role="button" title="Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Airliewood&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/744.jpg" width="535" height="453" alt="Airliewood" title="Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/745.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Tate County Courthouse&quot;}" role="button" title="The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Tate County Courthouse&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/745.jpg" width="535" height="673" alt="Tate County Courthouse" title="The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/746.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosedale&quot;}" role="button" title="Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosedale&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/746.jpg" width="535" height="481" alt="Rosedale" title="Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/747.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Shadowlawn&quot;}" role="button" title="Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Shadowlawn&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/747.jpg" width="535" height="347" alt="Shadowlawn" title="Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/748.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;L-shape Victorian Vernacular forms&quot;}" role="button" title="Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;L-shape Victorian Vernacular forms&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/748.jpg" width="535" height="397" alt="L-shape Victorian Vernacular forms" title="Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/749.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Christian Schwartz House&quot;}" role="button" title="The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Christian Schwartz House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/749.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Christian Schwartz House" title="The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/750.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Keyhole House&quot;}" role="button" title="The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Keyhole House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/750.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Keyhole House" title="The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/architecture-in-mississippi-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Tue, 01 Dec 2009 11:00:00 +0000 usnext 7091 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/lesson-plan/architecture-in-mississippi-lesson-plan <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Mon, 11/30/2009 - 14:59</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><h2><span class="caps">OVERVIEW</span></h2> <p>Studying the architecture of the communities in our state can reveal new insights into our history and culture. Using examples of a log cabin and a more ornate Federal style house, students can easily draw conclusions about differences in ways of living. This lesson will encourage further investigation of a variety of architectural styles used throughout the state’s history and a consideration of how our buildings reflect who we are and the realities of our world from one time period to another.</p> <h2><span class="caps">CONNECTION</span> TO <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">CURRICULUM</span></h2> <p>Mississippi Studies Framework: Competencies 1, 2, and 3</p> <h2><span class="caps">TEACHING</span> <span class="caps">LEVELS</span></h2> <p>Grades 4 (with modifications) through 12</p> <h2><span class="caps">MATERIALS</span></h2> <ul><li>The two <cite>Mississippi History Now</cite> articles on architecture: <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</a> and <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</a></li> <li>Large sheets of paper for guidebook, preferably “sketch pad” size</li> <li>Markers</li> </ul><h2><span class="caps">OBJECTIVES</span></h2> <p>Students will:</p> <ul><li>Realize how the architecture of a place reflects its history, geography, and culture;</li> <li>Distinguish between vernacular architecture and formal architectural styles;</li> <li>Create a Mississippi Architecture Guidebook.</li> </ul><h2><span class="caps">OPENING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <p>Copy the opening paragraph from the <cite>Mississippi History Now</cite> article, <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</a> on an overhead or white board for students to read and consider. Lead them to talk about specific ways architecture can tell something about the history, geography, and culture of a place. If possible, use well-known buildings in the local community (at least one of vernacular style and one of a more formal style) for students to identify differences and to speculate on the “stories” of each one. Or, use the photographs from the two articles.</p> <h2><span class="caps">DEVELOPING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Have students explore the meaning of the term “vernacular architecture” by having them read the first paragraph under that section in the first article. They should construct a web for their notes that contains the various elements of vernacular architecture.</li> <li>Have students read the section on vernacular architecture, paying attention to each type mentioned in the article: <cite>mounds, French, British, Spanish</cite>, and <cite>Anglo-American</cite>. Ask them to think about this question as they read: How does early construction in Mississippi reflect the definition of vernacular architecture?</li> <li>For each type of vernacular architecture (in italics above), students, working in small groups, will write an answer to the above question. Their answer should contain at least two pieces of evidence.</li> <li>Ask students to read the two paragraphs entitled “Federal Style” and to think about differences between the vernacular style and this more formal style of architecture. Have them write differences in their notes and discuss changes in society, economy, and transportation that would enable residents to employ this different style of architecture in their buildings.</li> <li>To uncover specific information about the remaining architectural styles used in Mississippi, students will develop a Mississippi Architecture Guidebook. Each small group of 2 to 3 members will investigate one of the vernacular or formal architectural styles described in the <cite>Mississippi History Now</cite> articles. They will identify its characteristics, its origin, and will cite examples of the style found across the state and if possible, in their local community. This information will be compiled on a large “sketch-pad” size paper and should include pictures or drawings of the examples.</li> <li>Students will assemble the pages of their guidebook and will present it to the school library for display and use as a resource.</li> <li>Teacher will ask students what they think about preserving the state’s “physical heritage,” and then lead a classroom discussion on historical preservation.</li> </ol><h2><span class="caps">CONCLUDING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Ask students to “build” the house of their dreams based on one of the architectural styles they have studied. They can either draw a picture of it, design a model, or write an essay describing it. They must cite reasons for the particular style they have chosen.</li> </ol><h2><span class="caps">ASSESSING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Participation in large-group discussion</li> <li>Note completion exercises</li> <li>Participation in small-group activity</li> <li>“Dream House” assignment</li> </ol><h2><span class="caps">EXTENDING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Collect pictures of buildings in the community and develop a local architecture guidebook.</li> </ol></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lp-author--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lp-author field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item">Martha Hutson</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-issue--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-issue.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-issue.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-issue field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Theme</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/20" hreflang="en">European settlement</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Time Period</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1" hreflang="en">The First Peoples to 1518</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/6" hreflang="en">Promise and Peril, 1903–1927</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/7" hreflang="en">Bridging Hardship, 1928-1945</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/8" hreflang="en">Forging Ahead, 1946–Present</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Mon, 30 Nov 2009 20:59:59 +0000 usnext 7092 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Native Mississippi: Some New Perspectives http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/prehistoric-mississippi-some-new-perspectives <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Native Mississippi: Some New Perspectives</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Sat, 09/29/2007 - 21:12</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> October 2007 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Samuel Brookes <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/10" hreflang="en">Archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1" hreflang="en">The First Peoples to 1518</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>Mound building</h2> <p>In recent years scientists have begun to reconsider some old assumptions about the earliest people in the New World. Perhaps the biggest revolution in archaeology has occurred because of research done in Louisiana. This research suggests that the earliest mounds and mound groups in the world were built in Louisiana and Mississippi during what is referred to as the Middle Archaic period (8000 to 4500 BP) by archaeologists. These dates predate the Great Wall of China, Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids. The dating of the early mounds has caused archaeologists to rethink how people lived during this early time period. Previously it had been assumed that, because of the hunting and gathering lifestyle of these early people, there was little leisure time for activities such as mound building. However, recent work by several archaeologists has begun to shed new light on these early group’s activities.</p> <p>While most of the earliest mounds were built in Louisiana, some were also constructed in Mississippi. One such group of mounds, found in what is now downtown Pascagoula, were demolished around the turn of the century. A group of fourteen stone beads were found inside the mounds, one of which was a classic Middle Archaic style effigy bead. This artifact securely dated the mounds to the Middle Archaic period. A second mound, in Lincoln County, Mississippi, which has been tested by radiocarbon dating, was built between 5500 BP. and 5250 BP, also during the Archaic period. Some excavations and tests are still being conducted at this mound. A third mound dating to the Archaic period was discovered in Lowndes County, Mississippi. This mound dates to 6500–5750 B.C. These three sites, two single mounds and one group of three mounds, suggest that mounds were being built in Mississippi at a much earlier date than was previously believed.</p> <h2>Artifacts</h2> <p>As previously mentioned, based on the hunter gatherer lifestyle of groups during the Archaic period, it had been previously assumed that there was little time for anything more than practical activities and so it had long been presumed that the artifacts of this time period were almost entirely functional. As with the new dating of mounds though, new evidence challenges this view. Stone beads found in Mississippi, especially the effigies, are finely wrought specimens, many of which were made of rock imported from great distances.</p> <p>The stone beads found in Mississippi have long drawn the attention of researchers. In 1878, some 449 unfinished stone beads, the so-called Keenan cache, were discovered in Jefferson Davis County. They were donated to the Smithsonian Institution. I had the pleasure of borrowing this collection in 1979 and returning it to Mississippi where it could be studied by archaeologist John Connaway. His report on this find is one of the most important documents dealing with Archaic period bead making. He noted that the cache of beads had been carefully placed in the ground, but did not appear to have been part of a burial offering. He also found that although none of the beads were finished, no tools used to manufacture the beads had been placed in the ground with them. One large effigy bead had been placed flat on the bottom of the pit. The long tubular beads were placed standing on end on top of this bead and then all the other beads were placed on top of these specimens. This ritual placement of artifacts suggested that possibly a ceremony occurred as the beads were placed in the ground. Connaway also made a great discovery while examining the long tubular beads. Looking through a microscope he discovered striations caused by grinding encircled the beads. This meant that they had been hafted and turned on a lathe. Interestingly, Connaway found that one bead had been partially drilled and in the hole he discovered the stone drill bit. The drill had become wedged in the bead and had broken. The bit, about the size of a grain of rice, was made of the local Citronelle gravel. By carefully studying the Keenan cache Connaway was able to deduce the steps of manufacture employed by the bead maker. Additionally, the fact that so many beads were found together in an unfinished state strongly suggested a specialist at work.</p> <p>In addition to the skilled craftsmanship of the beads, archaeologists studying the stone beads soon noticed that many were made from non-native stone. A number of specimens are made from a distinctive green material with white inclusions, identified by the Mississippi Geological Survey as trachyte. Trachyte outcrops in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. Several beads were made of other types of material from this same area, suggesting that there was a trade route between Mississippi and Arkansas. Such a long distance exchange network further challenged earlier ideas about hunter gatherers. Also of interest was the fact that what was being exchanged was not a necessity, such as a large good quality chert for tool manufacture, but rather material used to manufacture stone beads. The evidence also indicates that the beads were made in a small area of southwest Mississippi, near Brookhaven, and were exchanged with groups in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee and Alabama.</p> <p>The purpose of the beads has also been debated. Were they merely jewelry or did they represent something else? The effigy beads show mammal, bird and horned owl elements but no human elements. Pendants show turtle, bird, duck, owl and kingfisher elements, but again no human elements. Often these elements are combined on beads. So, a creature depicted on one bead might have some features of a horned owl and others of a mammal. Archaeologists debate the meanings of these symbols, but it has been suggested that they are closely tied with strong cultural beliefs and identity.</p> <p>In summary, archaeological thought about the Middle Archaic period has undergone a revolution as new discoveries have been made concerning trade routes, migration, mound construction, and manufacturing. Further research and working with modern Native American nations will increase our knowledge regarding Mississippi’s earliest peoples.</p> <p><cite>Samuel Brookes is heritage program manager, National Forests in Mississippi. <em>This article was updated in 2021.</em></cite></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>References:</h3> <p>Connaway, John M. 1981 The Keenan Bead Cache. Louisiana Archaeology 8:57-71.</p> <p>Crawford, Jessica F. 2003 Archaic Effigy Beads: A New Look at Some Old Beads. Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Mississippi.</p> <p>Rau, Charles 1878 The Stock-in-trade of an Aboriginal Lapidary. Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report for 1877, pp. 1-4, Washington, D.C.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/522.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;A cache of beads from a mound group in what is now downtown Pascagoula. 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Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Unfinished stone beads&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/522.jpg" width="600" height="395" alt="Unfinished stone beads" title="A cache of beads from a mound group in what is now downtown Pascagoula. One of the beads, the specimen in the upper right, is a classic effigy bead. Photo courtesy John M. Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/523.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Pendants show turtle, bird, duck, owl and kingfisher elements, but no human elements. Photo courtesy John M. Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Pendant&quot;}" role="button" title="Pendants show turtle, bird, duck, owl and kingfisher elements, but no human elements. Photo courtesy John M. 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Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/524.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The purpose of effigy beads has also been debated. Were they merely jewelry or did they represent something else? Photo courtesy John M. Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;effigy beads&quot;}" role="button" title="The purpose of effigy beads has also been debated. Were they merely jewelry or did they represent something else? Photo courtesy John M. Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7055-RQ0WTYYSi1o" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The purpose of effigy beads has also been debated. Were they merely jewelry or did they represent something else? Photo courtesy John M. Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;effigy beads&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/524.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="effigy beads" title="The purpose of effigy beads has also been debated. Were they merely jewelry or did they represent something else? Photo courtesy John M. Connaway, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Sun, 30 Sep 2007 02:12:44 +0000 usnext 7055 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Gideon Lincecum (1793-1874): Mississippi Pioneer and Man of Many Talents Lesson Plan http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/lesson-plan/gideon-lincecum-1793-1874-mississippi-pioneer-and-man-of-many-talents-lesson-plan <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gideon Lincecum (1793-1874): Mississippi Pioneer and Man of Many Talents Lesson Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Thu, 08/09/2007 - 21:57</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>OVERVIEW</h2> <p>In every period of history there exist extraordinary citizens that make everlasting contributions to their society. Gideon Lincecum is one such individual. Through his writings we can gain much insight into the experiences of settlers during the early period of Mississippi’s statehood. His works are an invaluable source of reference for grasping an understanding of how social and cultural changes effected Mississippians of his era.</p> <h2>CURRICULAR CONNECTIONS</h2> <p>Mississippi Studies Framework: Competencies 1, 2, and 3.</p> <h2>TEACHING LEVELS</h2> <p>Grades 7 through 12.</p> <h2>MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT</h2> <ul><li><i>Mississippi History Now</i> article</li> <li>Notebook paper and pencil or pen</li> <li>Whiteboard and marker</li> <li>Unlined paper or poster board</li> <li>Markers and colored pencils</li> </ul><h2>OBJECTIVES</h2> <p>The students will:</p> <ul><li>analyze the life of Mississippi pioneer Gideon Lincecum.</li> <li>compose a nomination letter for Gideon Lincecum.</li> <li>illustrate the accomplishments of Gideon Lincecum.</li> </ul><h2>OPENING THE LESSON</h2> <p>The teacher will ask the students to consider the establishment of a Mississippi History Hall of Fame that recognizes the significant and extraordinary accomplishments of citizens that have had an effect upon our state’s heritage. The teacher will ask the students: what type of characteristics should inductees possess? What type of contributions should be considered for induction into such a distinguished organization? Student responses can be recorded on the board. The teacher will explain to the students that they will have an opportunity today in class to learn about an extraordinary man named Gideon Lincecum.</p> <h2>DEVELOPING THE LESSON</h2> <ol><li>Explain to the students that they have been given the task of writing a nomination letter for Gideon Lincecum. It has been suggested that he would be an excellent choice for induction into the Mississippi History Hall of Fame. Students should work with a partner for this portion of the lesson.</li> <li>As students read the Mississippi History NOW article, they should make a list of accomplishments and key events in the life of Gideon Lincecum. Students should use this list in order to write their nomination letters for Gideon Lincecum.</li> <li>Allow students to continue working with their assigned partner in order to write the nomination letter in support of Gideon Lincecum’s induction into the Mississippi History Hall of Fame. In the nomination letters, students should clearly state their position of support for Gideon Lincecum’s selection.</li> <li>Allow students to create a poster that will be released to commemorate Gideon Lincecum’s induction into the Mississippi History Hall of Fame.</li> <li>Allow the students to share their nomination letters and posters with the class.</li> </ol><h2>CLOSING THE LESSON</h2> <p>The teacher will ask for student volunteers to share the leadership characteristics they felt that Gideon Lincecum possessed and give examples from his life to support their suggestions.</p> <h2>ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING</h2> <ol><li>Class participation</li> <li>Letters</li> <li>Posters</li> </ol><h2>EXTENDING THE LESSON</h2> <ol><li>Research the founding of the city of Columbus.</li> <li>Research the medical practices popular during the time that Gideon Lincecum practiced as well as practices common among the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians.</li> <li>Research the everyday life of Mississippi pioneers.</li> </ol></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lp-author--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lp-author field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item">Karla Smith</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-issue--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-issue.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-issue.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-issue field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/gideon-lincecum-1793-1874-mississippi-pioneer-and-man-of-many-talents" hreflang="en">Gideon Lincecum (1793-1874): Mississippi Pioneer and Man of Many Talents</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Theme</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/25" hreflang="en">Public Health</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/26" hreflang="en">Recreation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Time Period</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Fri, 10 Aug 2007 02:57:32 +0000 usnext 6857 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov A Failed Enterprise: The French Colonial Period in Mississippi http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/french-colonial-period-in-mississippi <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">A Failed Enterprise: The French Colonial Period in Mississippi</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Thu, 07/26/2007 - 14:47</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> September 2007 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by J. Michael Bunn and Clay Williams <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/20" hreflang="en">European settlement</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>From 1699 to 1763, the future state of Mississippi was a part of the French colony of Louisiana. During these years, the French explored the region, established settlements and military outposts, engaged in political and economic relations with the area’s Native American people, and sought to establish a profitable economy. Though France was ultimately unable to achieve its goals in the region, the years of French control of the area have left a lasting impression on Mississippi and form a crucial part of its unique cultural heritage.</p> <p>The French era in Mississippi’s history began when Rene-Robert, Cavalier de La Salle, claimed the area for France during his famous voyage down the Mississippi River in 1682. He named the region “Louisiana” in honor of French King Louis <span class="caps">XIV</span>, but failed to solidify the claim by establishing a settlement. It was not until the late 1690s that the French government took serious steps to fortify the region and develop it into a functioning colony.</p> <h3>French outpost in the New World</h3> <p>The French government chose Pierre LeMoyne, Sieur d’Iberville, to lead the colonization of Louisiana. A native of the French colony in Montreal, Canada, Iberville’s reputation as a bold warrior in colonial wars with Britain along with his aristocratic background earned him this important command.</p> <p>Iberville’s contingent of ships arrived on the Gulf Coast in January 1699. He anchored off Ship Island on February 10, and went ashore three days later at present-day Ocean Springs. He moved quickly to obtain the friendship of the local Biloxi by providing them food and gifts. From them he learned of a river to the west which he believed was the Mississippi earlier explored by LaSalle, and set out to explore it. He confirmed it was indeed the Mississippi by obtaining from the local people a letter left with them by LaSalle’s trusted assistant, Henri de Tonti, in the mid-1680s.</p> <p>Unfortunately, Iberville was unable to find a suitable site for a fort along the river. He returned to the coast, and after locating a channel of sufficient depth to accommodate sea-going ships, ordered the construction of a fort on the eastern side of Biloxi Bay in April 1699. This fort, named Maurepas in honor of the French Minister of Marine and Colonies, was the first European settlement in Mississippi and the first capital of the French colony of Louisiana. Fort Maurepas featured four bastions made of squared logs and twelve guns. Inside it contained several structures such as barracks, a storehouse, and a chapel. Throughout the remainder of 1699, the fort, garrisoned by approximately eighty men, served as a base of operations for further exploration of the area.</p> <p>Despite this temporary success in securing a foothold in the South along the Gulf of Mexico, conditions for the French garrison steadily worsened and threatened to undermine the colonization effort. The intense heat killed crops, fresh water became scarce, illness spread, and boredom destroyed discipline. Only the aid of the local Biloxis helped sustain the French. To be closer to France’s ally Spain in the event that a likely war with England broke out, the struggling settlement at Fort Maurepas was relocated east to Mobile in 1701. By the spring of 1702, Fort Maurepas was totally abandoned. The colonial capital moved back to the Biloxi area briefly from 1719 to 1722 before moving to New Orleans, but with Maurepas’ failure the Mississippi Gulf Coast would never again figure as prominently in French plans for development of the region.</p> <h3>Establishment on the Mississippi</h3> <p>Establishing itself along the Mississippi River remained a priority for France throughout the early 1700s. Of particular interest was the site of Natchez, located on a high bluff overlooking the Mississippi and featuring a large area of fertile soil. The French constructed Fort Rosalie there in 1716, hoping a prosperous settlement might develop nearby. Strained relations with the local <a href="/issue/the-natchez-indians">Natchez</a>, however, ultimately led to the settlement’s demise. The French treated the Natchez harshly and abused their hospitality. When French officials in 1729 demanded land that included the White Apple Village, a sacred ceremonial center, the Natchez determined to take a stand.</p> <p>On the morning of November 28, 1729, the Natchez attacked the fort, killing approximately three hundred people and taking many women, children, and black slaves captive. A smaller garrison further north near present-day Vicksburg was also attacked by Natchez allies, the Yazoo. The French quickly sent forces to retaliate against the Natchez and within two years had virtually destroyed the tribe. The French eventually repaired and re-garrisoned the fort, but the settlement at Natchez languished and did not begin to recover until decades later when it was no longer part of the French empire.</p> <h3>A private colony</h3> <p>Producing revenue was just as important to France as establishing settlements. In an effort to establish a stable agricultural economy, the French encouraged colonists to grow crops such as tobacco, indigo, and rice. The French also assisted in developing the deerskin trade, which became the colony’s single most profitable economic enterprise. Still, the colony cost France much more than it reaped from it. To remedy the situation, France decided to turn the colony over to a private company that could develop its economy while simultaneously solidifying French control of the region.</p> <p>The first private attempt was made by Anthony Crozat, who received a charter from King Louis <span class="caps">XIV</span> in 1712. Crozat never visited the colony, but instead sent his agent, Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac, to serve as governor. For over four years, Cadillac feuded with other colonial officials as he unsuccessfully struggled to improve the colony’s impoverished conditions. Having failed to develop the colony, Crozat returned it back to the French government in 1717.</p> <p>Shortly afterwards, the French turned the colony’s fortunes over to another private investor named <a href="/issue/john-law-and-the-mississippi-bubble-1718-1720">John Law</a>. Law organized a joint-stock company, named the Mississippi Company, a subsidiary of the Company of the Indies, and sold shares to investors by promising huge profits once the colony’s economy began to develop. Unfortunately, Law’s company, which had become known somewhat derisively as the “Mississippi Bubble,” failed in 1721. Law fled to avoid arrest and the company’s charter reverted to its parent company.</p> <h3>Life in French Mississippi</h3> <p>Perhaps the most significant development during Mississippi’s years as a private colony was the introduction of African slaves into the region. Slaves were brought in to assist with a wide variety of types of labor, especially agricultural projects. Their population increased rapidly, rising from 3,400 in 1731 to about 6,000 in 1763. This new element in French colonial society led to the establishment of one of the most notorious legal codes in history, the <cite>Code Noir</cite>, or “black code.” These laws, written by Iberville’s brother, Jean-Baptiste LeMoyne, Sieur d’Bienville, governed the behavior of slaves, restricted the activities of free Negroes, ordered Jews out of the colony, insisted on only one religion, Catholicism, and set the responsibilities of slaveholders toward their property. For instance, slaves were prohibited from owning weapons or from gathering in groups, and owners were held responsible for the care of their slaves.</p> <p>Enticing immigrants to French Mississippi proved to be a tremendous challenge to both the colonial government and private officials. At first, a steady flow of immigrants came to the colony in hopes of securing a better life, or perhaps making a quick fortune in the undeveloped region. But, as time went on and word of the colony’s poor situation spread, immigration slowed significantly. In a desperate attempt to boost the population of the colony, the French government rounded up vagrants, convicts, and others on the lower rungs of society in France and shipped them involuntarily to Louisiana.</p> <p>The French government also sent unmarried French women to Louisiana as potential wives for male settlers. These girls became popularly known as “cassette girls,” after the suitcase or cassette containing their possessions they carried to the colony. Although some Mississippi families today can trace their lineage to these girls, their arrival did not achieve the result the government had hoped. Only a few small, widely scattered settlements comprised Mississippi throughout its period of French control.</p> <h3>The struggle with England</h3> <p>England’s first foray into the area occurred in late 1699 when Bienville encountered an English ship on the Mississippi at a spot now known as “English Turn.” By bluffing, Bienville managed to convince them that the French had firm military control of the river, thus temporarily halting English colonization in the region.</p> <p>In the 1730s, Great Britain established the new colony of Georgia on the Atlantic Coast, and proclaimed that its boundaries extended all the way to the Mississippi River. British traders soon moved into the area, and made alliances with Native Americans, including the warlike <a href="/issue/chickasaws-the-unconquerable-people">Chickasaws</a>. Using the excuse of the Chickasaws refusing to hand over Natchez refugees, the French made war on the tribe. The conflict began when Bienville organized a two-pronged attack that ended in failure in northeast Mississippi at Ackia in 1736. A few years later, Bienville organized another invasion. Luckily for the French, the Chickasaws believed this force was too strong for them and signed a treaty in 1740 that was favorable to French interests. Despite the agreement, the Chickasaws remained a threat to the French throughout their control of the region.</p> <p>After numerous conflicts in North America, England finally gained complete victory over France in North America in the French and Indian War. In the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France gave up all its holdings on the continent to England. In an effort to prevent the English from fully capitalizing on their loss, France signed a secret treaty with Spain to give their ally French possessions west of the Mississippi River, including New Orleans. France was all too happy to cede Louisiana to Spain considering the financial drain and headaches that Louisiana had given them over the years. The French era in Mississippi’s history was over.</p> <p>Though it was characterized by turmoil, struggle, and failure, France’s period of control of Mississippi is an important period in the state’s past. It marks the first serious attempt by a European power to colonize the region, as well as the time period in which Mississippi became part of an international power struggle that would shape the development of the entirety of the Gulf South. Just as significantly, it initiated over a century of negotiation and conflict between European immigrants and the area’s native populations. Finally, French control set Mississippi on a course of agricultural and social development, underpinned by the institution of slavery, which would define much of its early history.</p> <p><cite>J. Michael Bunn is executive director of the Historic Chattahoochee Commission. and Clay Williams is director, Old Capitol Museum, Jackson, Mississippi.</cite></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>References</h3> <p>Busbee, Jr., Westley F. <cite>Mississippi: A History</cite>. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 2005.</p> <p>Claiborne, J.F.H. <cite>Mississippi, as a Province, Territory and State, with Biographical Notices of Eminent Citizens</cite>, Vol. 1. Jackson: Power &amp; Barksdale, Publishers and Printers, 1880.</p> <p>Higginbotham, Jay. <cite>Fort Maurepas</cite>. Pascagoula, Mississippi: Jackson County Historical Records, 1968.</p> <p>Howell, Walter G. “The French Period, 1699-1763,” in <cite>A History of Mississippi</cite>, edited by Richard Aubrey McLemore, Vol. 1. Jackson: University &amp; College Press of Mississippi, 1973, 110-136.</p> <p>Rowland, Dunbar and Albert G. Sanders, eds. <cite>Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion</cite>. 3 vols. Jackson, 1927-1932.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/262.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;A 1718 French map, Gulf of Mexico region. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/263.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rene-Robert, Cavalier de La Salle, priests, and others are on shore as supplies are unloaded from a ship, 1698. 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Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-3283" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/266.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The French chose Pierre LeMoyne, Sieur d&#039;Iberville (1661-1706), to lead the colonization of Louisiana. 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Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-38755" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/264.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Pierre LeMoyne, Sieur d&#039;Iberville&#039;s contingent of ships anchored off Ship Island on February 10, 1699, and went ashore three days later at present-day Ocean Springs, Mississippi. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History &quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;d&#039;Iberville landed in 1699&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/264.jpg" width="600" height="351" alt="d&#039;Iberville landed in 1699" title="Pierre LeMoyne, Sieur d&#039;Iberville&#039;s contingent of ships anchored off Ship Island on February 10, 1699, and went ashore three days later at present-day Ocean Springs, Mississippi. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History " loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/265.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;A priority for France throughout the early 1700s was to establish itself along the Mississippi River. The French constructed Fort Rosalie on the river in 1716 near the site of Natchez. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/267.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;A statue of Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (1656[ca.]-1730), possibly at city hall in Detroit, 1915. In 1712, France turned the colony over to a private company that could develop its economy and solidify French control of the region. Cadillac was sent by the company to serve as governor. Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-D420-2573&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Statue of Antoine Cadillac&quot;}" role="button" title="A statue of Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (1656[ca.]-1730), possibly at city hall in Detroit, 1915. In 1712, France turned the colony over to a private company that could develop its economy and solidify French control of the region. Cadillac was sent by the company to serve as governor. Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-D420-2573" data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6811-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;A statue of Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (1656[ca.]-1730), possibly at city hall in Detroit, 1915. In 1712, France turned the colony over to a private company that could develop its economy and solidify French control of the region. Cadillac was sent by the company to serve as governor. Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-D420-2573&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Statue of Antoine Cadillac&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/267.jpg" width="535" height="702" alt="Statue of Antoine Cadillac" title="A statue of Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (1656[ca.]-1730), possibly at city hall in Detroit, 1915. In 1712, France turned the colony over to a private company that could develop its economy and solidify French control of the region. Cadillac was sent by the company to serve as governor. Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-D420-2573" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Thu, 26 Jul 2007 19:47:06 +0000 usnext 6811 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Betsy Love and the Mississippi Married Women's Property Act of 1839 Lesson Plan http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/lesson-plan/betsy-love-and-the-mississippi-married-womens-property-act-of-1839-lesson-plan <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Betsy Love and the Mississippi Married Women&#039;s Property Act of 1839 Lesson Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Mon, 07/16/2007 - 19:11</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>OVERVIEW</h2> <p>With every social and cultural change in our American society there are individuals and events that serve as catalysts for these circumstances. Betsy Love is certainly a woman who helped bring change not only to Mississippi, but also to our nation. Her role in the lawsuit Fisher v. Allen served as a precedent in establishing the protection of property that belonged to married women. It was Love’s Chickasaw heritage and the tribal law of her culture that helped change the Mississippi state law concerning the property of married women. Most states in the nation followed Mississippi’s example concerning this issue. Unfortunately, Betsy Love’s part in furthering the rights of women has gained little attention not only in American history, but also in history of our state.</p> <h2>CURRICULAR CONNECTIONS</h2> <h4><em>US History: Exploration to 1877</em></h4> <ul><li>8.7.4 - Examine leaders in the women suffrage movement, including: biographies, writings, and speeches of Dorothea Dix, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, and their influence on women’s rights. </li> </ul><h4><em>Mississippi Studies</em></h4> <ul><li>MS.5.3 - Contrast the culture and social structure that developed in Mississippi during the antebellum period. </li> </ul><h2>TEACHING LEVELS</h2> <p>Grades 7 through 12.</p> <h2>MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT</h2> <ul><li>Projector or Smartboard</li> <li>Whiteboard and markers</li> <li><em>Mississippi History Now</em> article</li> <li>Unlined paper for cartoons</li> <li>Markers and colored pencils</li> <li>Notebook paper</li> <li>Pens/pencils</li> </ul><h2>OBJECTIVES</h2> <p>Students will:</p> <ul><li>Determine the significance of the lawsuit <em>Fisher v. Allen</em>.</li> <li>Explain the importance of the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em>.</li> <li>Identify those individuals and events involved in facilitating the passage of the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em>.</li> </ul><h2>OPENING THE LESSON</h2> <p>The teacher will ask the class to name female Mississippians who have made contributions to Mississippi and/or American history. The names can be listed on the board. The teacher will add Betsy Love’s name to the list and then ask the students to name her contribution to Mississippi history. More than likely, the students will not be able to answer questions about Betsy Love. Students will be informed that they will learn about Love’s contributions to the development of women’s rights in the state of Mississippi.</p> <h2>DEVELOPING THE LESSON</h2> <ol><li>The students will be asked to copy into their notebooks the questions listed at the end of the lesson plan. The questions can be listed on the whiteboard, Smartboard, or projector.</li> <li>Students will use the <em>Mississippi History Now</em> article in order to answer the questions. Students may work alone with a partner for this portion of the lesson plan.</li> <li>Once the students have completed the questions, allow student-volunteers to share their questions with the class. Students may check the answers to the questions for accuracy and comparison. The question-and-answer session for this article will lead the discussion. Be sure that students understand the precedence established by <em>Fisher v. Allen</em> and how it contributed to the passage of the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em>.</li> <li>After the class discussion is complete, allow for students to complete one of the following activities (students should be allowed to work with a partner for this portion of the lesson): <ol><li class="lower-alpha">A newspaper editorial or letter to the editor that might have been published before or after the passage of the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em>.</li> <li class="lower-alpha">A speech that might be delivered during Women’s history month to celebrate Betsy Love’s importance to women’s rights.</li> <li class="lower-alpha">A letter addressed to Elizabeth Gasper Brown addressing why Betsy Love may have had more significance in the passage of the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em> than Mrs. T.B.J. Hadley.</li> </ol></li> </ol><h2>CONCLUDING THE LESSON</h2> <p>Allow students to share their letters or speeches with the class.</p> <h2>ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING</h2> <ol><li>Class discussion and participation</li> <li>Questions</li> <li>Editorials or speeches</li> </ol><h2>EXTENDING THE LESSON</h2> <ol><li>Allow the students to research the culture of the Chickasaw tribe.</li> <li>Allow students to research gender roles in American society in 1839; they can complete a comparison/contrast study between them and gender roles today.</li> </ol><h3>Questions for Betsy Love article</h3> <ol><li>Why was Betsy Love’s husband, James Allen, sued in 1831?</li> <li>How did Mississippi and American law support the actions of the county sheriff when he seized Toney, the enslaved person, to settle the debts of James Allen?</li> <li>What principle did <em>Fisher v. Allen</em> establish? How did Betsy Love’s Chickasaw heritage support this principle?</li> <li>Why do you think scholars such as Elizabeth Gasper Brown gave credit to Mrs. T.B.J. Hadley for bringing attention to the protection of property owned by married women? Is there evidence that she was instrumental in helping to pass the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em>?</li> <li>Why do you think the <em>Married Women’s Property Act of 1839</em> was voted down several times before it was finally passed by the Mississippi Legislature?</li> </ol></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lp-author--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lp-author field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item">Karla Smith</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-issue--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-issue.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-issue.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-issue field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/betsy-love-and-the-mississippi-married-womens-property-act-of-1839" hreflang="en"> Betsy Love and the Mississippi Married Women&#039;s Property Act of 1839</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Theme</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/23" hreflang="en">Mississippi Government</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/29" hreflang="en">Women&#039;s history</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Time Period</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Tue, 17 Jul 2007 00:11:39 +0000 usnext 6774 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov The Natchez Indians http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/the-natchez-indians <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Natchez Indians</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Sun, 10/22/2006 - 15:31</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> October 2007 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Jim Barnett <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Natchez Indians were among the last American Indian groups to inhabit the area now known as southwestern Mississippi.</p> <p>Archaeological evidence indicates that the Natchez Indian culture began as early as A.D. 700 and lasted until the 1730s when the tribe was dispersed in a war with the French. Their language is now considered to have been a language isolate, not closely related to the other Indian languages of the region.</p> <p>The Natchez Indians were successful farmers, growing corn, beans, and squash. They also hunted, fished, and gathered wild plant foods. (Figure 1)</p> <p>The ancestors of the Natchez were probably part of the powerful Quigualtam chiefdom encountered by the De Soto expedition in 1542-1543. Due to the spread of European diseases such as smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague, the native population of the Lower Mississippi Valley declined drastically in the century following De Soto’s arrival.</p> <p>By the late 1600s, the Natchez “tribe” was a confederation of autonomous settlement districts comprised of a remnant of the pre-De Soto population along with Tunican-speaking refugee groups. The burgeoning Indian slave trade initiated by the English in Carolina made it necessary for small groups to band together for protection. The Great Sun, hereditary chief of the Natchez, held a largely ceremonial position of leadership. (Figure 2) Although treated with respect, the Great Sun had no real control over the settlement district chiefs. During the early 18th century, five Natchez settlement districts are recognized: Flour, Jenzenaque, White Apple, Grigra, and Tiou.</p> <p>Like many Southeastern Indian groups, the Natchez people were divided into two moieties (moitié is a French word meaning “half”). In Native American societies, the two moieties provided each side with marriage partners and performed support services for each other. They were also highly competitive in traditional games such as stickball, which is similar to the modern game of lacrosse. Typically, one moiety was viewed as elder or of higher rank than the other, leading early colonial observers to make comparisons with the class systems in Europe. Moiety membership was determined by heredity through the female line. This system is called matrilineal descent and was also common among other American Indian groups.</p> <h2>Moundbuilding</h2> <p>Moundbuilding was an expression of the complex tribal religion with the mounds serving as bases for sacred buildings. The people of the tribe worked together to construct and maintain the mounds. The type of mounds built by the Natchez, flat-topped ceremonial mounds, shows the influence of moundbuilding cultures to the north in the Middle Mississippi River Valley.</p> <p>Only a few high-ranking tribal officials lived at the mound centers on a permanent basis. The people of the tribe, living dispersed over a wide area on family farms, gathered at the mound centers periodically for social and religious activities.</p> <p>The Grand Village of the Natchez Indians in Natchez, Mississippi, was the site of the Natchez tribe’s main ceremonial mound center during the early period of French colonization in the Lower Mississippi River Valley. Construction of the mounds at the Grand Village was done in stages, probably beginning in the 13th century. (Figure 3)</p> <p>The Natchez Indians also constructed Emerald Mound, near Natchez on the Natchez Trace Parkway. Archaeological evidence indicates that Emerald Mound may have been the main ceremonial mound center for the tribe before that status was shifted to the Grand Village sometime prior to the arrival of French explorers in the late 1600s. (Figure 4)</p> <h2>Arrival of the Europeans</h2> <p>The first documented historical contact with the Natchez Indians occurred in March 1682 when the Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle expedition descended the Mississippi River. Following La Salle’s meeting of the Natchez Indians, French and English explorers, priests, and military personnel made frequent visits to the Natchez area. The French established Fort Rosalie at Natchez in 1716 as the nucleus of a colony. Over the next thirteen years, the French colony at Natchez grew. However, disputes and misunderstandings between the French and the Natchez resulted in a series of conflicts.</p> <p>The situation worsened as the Natchez became caught up in the 18th-century struggle between England and France for control of North America. By the 1720s, English agents were successful in turning a significant portion of the Natchez tribe against the French.</p> <p>In November 1729 the Natchez Indians rebelled against the French colony, resulting in a war between the Natchez and the French. The Natchez Indians ultimately lost the war and were forced to abandon their homeland. Following their defeat at the hands of the French, many Natchez refugees joined other tribes, including the Chickasaws, Creeks, and Cherokees. Today, Natchez Indian descendants live in the southern Appalachian Mountains area and in Oklahoma. (Figure 5)</p> <h2>Archaeological studies</h2> <p>Archaeological investigations at the Grand Village were conducted in 1930, 1962, and 1972 by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History. These studies represent a classic example of historical archaeology, where archaeological findings are compared to written documentation from the French colonization of the Natchez area.</p> <p>The Mississippi Department of Archives and History, the National Park Service, the University of Alabama, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Harvard University’s Lower Mississippi Survey continue archaeological investigations in the Natchez area. (Figure 3)</p> <h2>National Historic Landmark</h2> <p>Today, the Grand Village of the Natchez Indians is a National Historic Landmark administered by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, with a museum accredited by the American Association of Museums, partially restored mound area, a reconstructed Natchez Indian house, nature trails, and a picnic pavilion. The site is open seven days a week and offers educational programs for school and adult groups. Admission is free. Annual events include the Natchez Powwow, Summer Film Series, Discovery Week, Student Days, and the 11th Moon Storytelling.</p> <p><cite>Jim Barnett is director, division of historic properties, Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</cite></p> <h3>Destinations</h3> <p><b>The Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, Natchez, Adams County, Mississippi</b><br /> The Grand Village of the Natchez Indians is located within the city limits of Natchez. Turn east off U.S. Highway 61 South, known as Seargent S. Prentiss Drive, on to Jefferson Davis Boulevard. Proceed on Jefferson Davis Boulevard one-half mile to the entrance gate.</p> <p><a href="https://www.mdah.ms.gov/explore-mississippi/grand-village-natchez-indians" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.mdah.ms.gov/explore-mississippi/grand-village-natchez-indians</a></p> <p><b>Emerald Mound, Adams County, Mississippi</b><br /> Emerald Mound is administered by the National Park Service as part of the Natchez Trace Parkway. To reach Emerald Mound from Natchez, follow U.S. Highway 61 North 8 miles to the entrance of the Natchez Trace Parkway. Follow the Natchez Trace Parkway for about 2 miles and look for signs with directions to Emerald Mound.</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/eme.htm" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/eme.htm</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>Selected Bibliography: Natchez Indians</h3> <p>James F. Barnett, Jr. <cite>The Natchez Indians: A History to 1735</cite>, University Press of Mississippi, Jackson (2007)</p> <p>Jeffrey P. Brain, Late Prehistoric Settlement Patterning in the Yazoo Basin and Natchez Bluffs Regions of the Lower Mississippi Valley. In Bruce D. Smith (ed.), <i>Mississippian Settlement Patterns</i>, Academic Press, New York, pp. 331-368 (1978)</p> <p>Ian W. Brown, Natchez Indian Archaeology: Culture Change and Stability in the Lower Mississippi Valley<i>, Archaeological Report No. 15</i>, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson (1985)</p> <p>Pierre F.X. de Charlevoix, <i>Charlevoix’s Louisiana: Selections from the History and the Journal</i>, edited by Charles E. O’Neill, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge (1977)</p> <p>Jack D. Elliott, Jr., <i>The Fort of Natchez and the Colonial Origins of Mississippi</i>, Eastern National Parks and Monument Association (1998)</p> <p>Charles Hudson,<i> The Southeastern Indians</i>, The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville (1976)</p> <p>Robert S. Neitzel, Archaeology of the Fatherland Site: The Grand Village of the Natchez, Vol. 51, Pt. 1, <i>Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History</i>, New York (1966) (Reprinted 1997 by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History as Archaeological Report No. 28.)</p> <p>Robert S. Neitzel, The Grand Village of the Natchez Revisited: Excavations of the Fatherland Site, Adams County, Mississippi, 1972, <i>Archaeological Report No. 12</i>, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson (1983)</p> <p>Wendall H. Oswalt and Sharlotte Neely, The Natchez: Sophisticated Farmers of the Deep South, in <i>This Land Was Theirs</i>, 5th edition, Mayfield Publishing Co., Mountain View, CA., pp.467-491 (1996)</p> <p>Theodore C. Stern, The Natchez, in Robert F. Spencer and Jesse D. Jennings (eds.) <i>The Native Americans</i>, 2nd edition, pp. 414-424, Harper &amp; Row, New York (1977) (original edition 1965)</p> <p>John R. Swanton,<i> Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent Coast of the Gulf of Mexico</i> (1911), Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 43, Washington, D.C. Reprinted 1998 by Dover Press</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/7.gif" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 1) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Drawing of Natchez Indian with bow&quot;}" role="button" title="(Figure 1) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6769-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 1) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Drawing of Natchez Indian with bow&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/7.gif" width="190" height="318" alt="Drawing of Natchez Indian with bow" title="(Figure 1) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/8.gif" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 2) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Drawing of Natchez Indian mother and child&quot;}" role="button" title="(Figure 2) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6769-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 2) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Drawing of Natchez Indian mother and child&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/8.gif" width="190" height="324" alt="Drawing of Natchez Indian mother and child" title="(Figure 2) Le Page Du Pratz drawings courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/9.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 3) Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun’s Mound, Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, in 1972. The Mississippi Department of Archives and History conducted excavations at the Grand Village in 1930, 1962, and 1972. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun&#039;s Mound&quot;}" role="button" title="(Figure 3) Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun’s Mound, Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, in 1972. The Mississippi Department of Archives and History conducted excavations at the Grand Village in 1930, 1962, and 1972. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6769-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 3) Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun’s Mound, Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, in 1972. The Mississippi Department of Archives and History conducted excavations at the Grand Village in 1930, 1962, and 1972. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun&#039;s Mound&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/9.jpg" width="190" height="125" alt="Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun&#039;s Mound" title="(Figure 3) Archaeologists at work near the Great Sun’s Mound, Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, in 1972. The Mississippi Department of Archives and History conducted excavations at the Grand Village in 1930, 1962, and 1972. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/10.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 4) Prior to European contact with the Natchez Indians, Emerald Mound in Adams County served as one of the tribe’s main ceremonial mound centers. Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Emerald Mound in Adams County&quot;}" role="button" title="(Figure 4) Prior to European contact with the Natchez Indians, Emerald Mound in Adams County served as one of the tribe’s main ceremonial mound centers. Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6769-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 4) Prior to European contact with the Natchez Indians, Emerald Mound in Adams County served as one of the tribe’s main ceremonial mound centers. Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Emerald Mound in Adams County&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/10.jpg" width="190" height="123" alt="Emerald Mound in Adams County" title="(Figure 4) Prior to European contact with the Natchez Indians, Emerald Mound in Adams County served as one of the tribe’s main ceremonial mound centers. Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/11.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 5) Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant, shown here during a visit to the Grand Village of the Natchez Indians in 1983. Sam was active in preserving the history of the Natchez tribe. Before his death in 1986, Sam spent many years searching for surviving speakers of the Natchez language. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant&quot;}" role="button" title="(Figure 5) Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant, shown here during a visit to the Grand Village of the Natchez Indians in 1983. Sam was active in preserving the history of the Natchez tribe. Before his death in 1986, Sam spent many years searching for surviving speakers of the Natchez language. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6769-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;(Figure 5) Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant, shown here during a visit to the Grand Village of the Natchez Indians in 1983. Sam was active in preserving the history of the Natchez tribe. Before his death in 1986, Sam spent many years searching for surviving speakers of the Natchez language. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/11.jpg" width="190" height="134" alt="Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant" title="(Figure 5) Archie Sam, a Natchez Indian descendant, shown here during a visit to the Grand Village of the Natchez Indians in 1983. Sam was active in preserving the history of the Natchez tribe. Before his death in 1986, Sam spent many years searching for surviving speakers of the Natchez language. Photograph courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Sun, 22 Oct 2006 20:31:39 +0000 usnext 6769 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov George Poindexter, Second Governor of Mississippi: 1820-1822 http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/george-poindexter-second-governor-of-mississippi-1820-1822 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">George Poindexter, Second Governor of Mississippi: 1820-1822</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Wed, 08/17/2005 - 02:28</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> December 2003 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by David Sansing <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/15" hreflang="en">Governors and Senators</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A contemporary historian wrote that the history of George Poindexter’s public career is “the history of the Territory and the State of Mississippi, so closely and prominently was he connected with everything that occurred.”</p> <p>Poindexter, who was born in Louisa County, Virginia, in 1779, practiced law in Richmond before migrating to Natchez in 1802. From his successful law practice in Natchez he launched a long and distinguished political career during which he served as delegate to the territorial assembly, attorney general of the Mississippi Territory, territorial judge, territorial representative to the United States Congress, United States congressman, governor, and United States senator. Poindexter was elected president pro tempore of the U. S. Senate in 1834.</p> <p>At the 1817 Constitutional Convention, Poindexter was chairman of the committee that drafted the constitution and is generally recognized as the “Father of Mississippi’s First Constitution.” He later compiled the <em>Poindexter Code</em>, the state’s first legal compendium. In 1819, while serving in the U. S. Congress, Poindexter was elected as Mississippi’s second governor.<br /><br /> During Poindexter’s administration, the judicial system was restructured and a court of chancery was created, the militia was reorganized, enlarged, and strengthened, public assistance for indigent school children was established through the Literary Fund, the second Choctaw land cession was finalized in 1820 under the Treaty of Doak's Stand, and it was established that the capital of the growing state should be moved from Natchez to a location nearer its geographic center.</p> <p>Approximately two weeks after he was inaugurated, Governor Poindexter signed a bill emancipating William Johnson, the famous Barber of Natchez. Johnson eventually became Mississippi’s most famous and prosperous free Black man and often loaned money to his white friends, including George Poindexter.<br /><br /> In 1822, rather than seek re-election as governor, Poindexter ran for the U.S. Congress but was defeated. After that temporary setback, he practiced law in Jackson until his appointment to the U. S. Senate in 1830. During the great tariff controversy in 1832-1833, Poindexter sided with John C. Calhoun in opposition to President Andrew Jackson. In the other great national controversy of that period, the rechartering of the national bank, Poindexter supported the rechartering of the bank, a position that again placed him in opposition to President Jackson. He had very low regard for President Jackson and is credited by some as being the first to use the term “Kitchen Cabinet” in reference to Jackson’s intimate circle of advisors.</p> <p>Poindexter’s opposition to Jackson, who was immensely popular in Mississippi, caused his defeat for reappointment to the U. S. Senate in 1835. He left the state an embittered and defeated man. After moving to Lexington, Kentucky, for a short time, Poindexter returned to Jackson in 1841 and resumed his law practice, which he maintained until his death in 1855. J. F. H. Claiborne, Mississippi’s premier historian of the 19th century, considered Poindexter "the ablest man who ever lived in the state."</p> <p><em>David Sansing, Ph.D., is history professor emeritus, University of Mississippi. </em></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>Sources:</h3> <p>Bailey, Robert. "George Poindexter."<em> Journal of Mississippi History</em>, XXXV. Jackson: Mississippi Historical Society, (August, 1973); 227-247.</p> <p><em>Biographical Directory of the United States Congress</em> (1950), 169, 1689.</p> <p><em>Mississippi Official and Statistical Register</em> (1912), 49.</p> <p>Rowland, Dunbar. <em>Mississippi Comprising Sketches in Cyclopedic Form II</em>. 438-444 on "Kitchen Cabinet;" 448 on "ablest man;" 450.</p> <p>Swearingin, Mack.<em> Early Life of George Poindexter</em>. New Orleans: Tulane University, 1934.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/254.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;George Poindexter (1779-1855), Second Governor1820-1822. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;George Poindexter&quot;}" role="button" title="George Poindexter (1779-1855), Second Governor1820-1822. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6903-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;George Poindexter (1779-1855), Second Governor1820-1822. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;George Poindexter&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/254.jpg" width="350" height="463" alt="George Poindexter" title="George Poindexter (1779-1855), Second Governor1820-1822. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/the-governors-of-mississippi-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">The Governors of Mississippi Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Wed, 17 Aug 2005 07:28:41 +0000 usnext 6903 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov David Holmes, First and Fifth Governor of Mississippi: 1817-1820; 1826 http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/david-holmes-first-and-fifth-governor-of-mississippi-1817-1820-1826 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">David Holmes, First and Fifth Governor of Mississippi: 1817-1820; 1826</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Wed, 08/17/2005 - 02:07</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> December 2003 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by David Sansing <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/15" hreflang="en">Governors and Senators</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>When the constitutional convention met in July of 1817 to draft Mississippi’s first constitution, David Holmes was named president of the convention and was subsequently elected without opposition as the state’s first governor. The election of Governor Holmes, who had served as governor of the Mississippi Territory for several years, facilitated the transition of Mississippi from territorial status to statehood.</p> <p>Holmes was born in York County, Pennsylvania, on March 10, 1769. His family moved to Virginia when he was young lad. At the time of his appointment as fourth governor of the Mississippi Territory in 1809, Holmes was serving in the United States Congress as a representative from Virginia, a position he had held since 1797.</p> <p>Holmes was a popular choice for governor, and his appointment marked the end of a long period of bitter factionalism in the territory. During his administration the territorial capital was located at Washington, Mississippi, a small town six miles east of Natchez.</p> <p>Shortly after Governor Holmes was appointed territorial governor, Jefferson College opened for its first session. Jefferson College, which had been established at Washington in 1802 but had not opened due to a lack of funds, was Mississippi’s first institution of higher learning and was among the nation’s earliest state-supported colleges.</p> <p>Governor Holmes directed the affairs of the territory during some difficult times. Border incidents with Spanish adventurers below the thirty-first parallel sparked frequent violence along Mississippi's southern frontier and the War of 1812 incited numerous Native American raids in the eastern half of the territory.</p> <p>Following the War of 1812, the Mississippi Territory grew rapidly and by 1817 it had reached the population required for statehood. Governor Holmes was inaugurated October 7, 1817, at Natchez, the new state capital, and Mississippi was formally admitted to statehood on December 10, 1817. Under Mississippi’s first constitution the governor served a two-year term and was allowed to succeed himself.</p> <p>During Governor Holmes’s first administration the judicial system was established and the state’s judges were appointed, the legislature was organized, the militia was created, and the Choctaw Indian land cession east of the Pearl River was organized.</p> <p>Governor Holmes, who did not seek re-election in 1819, was appointed by the state legislature to the United States Senate in 1820 where he served until he was again elected governor in 1825, by a margin of 7 to 1. Soon after his second term began, Governor Holmes’s health began to fail and he resigned on July 25, 1826, after serving only six months of his second term.<br /><br /> David Holmes was one of the state’s three chief executives who was not married during his term in office. He served as governor of the territory and the state for eleven years and one month, the second longest period of service in the state’s history.<br /><br /> After his resignation, Governor Holmes returned to Virginia and, following several years of declining health, died at Jordan’s Sulphur Springs on August 28, 1832. Holmes County was named in honor of Mississippi’s first governor.</p> <p><em>David Sansing, Ph.D., is history professor emeritus, University of Mississippi. </em></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h2>Sources:</h2> <p><em>Biographical Directory of the United States Congress</em> (1950), 1325.</p> <p><em>Mississippi Official and Statistical Register</em> (1912), 48.</p> <p>Rowland, Dunbar. <em>Mississippi Comprising Sketches in Cyclopedic Form I.</em> 878-887.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/253.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;David Holmes(1769-1832)First and Fifth Governor1817-1820 and 1826. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;David Holmes&quot;}" role="button" title="David Holmes(1769-1832)First and Fifth Governor1817-1820 and 1826. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6902-7Sgjtx2MTGw" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;David Holmes(1769-1832)First and Fifth Governor1817-1820 and 1826. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;David Holmes&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/253.jpg" width="350" height="401" alt="David Holmes" title="David Holmes(1769-1832)First and Fifth Governor1817-1820 and 1826. Courtesy, Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/the-governors-of-mississippi-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">The Governors of Mississippi Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Wed, 17 Aug 2005 07:07:05 +0000 usnext 6902 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Gideon Lincecum (1793-1874): Mississippi Pioneer and Man of Many Talents http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/gideon-lincecum-1793-1874-mississippi-pioneer-and-man-of-many-talents <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gideon Lincecum (1793-1874): Mississippi Pioneer and Man of Many Talents</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Tue, 08/09/2005 - 21:34</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> September 2004 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Greg O&#039;Brien <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/25" hreflang="en">Public Health</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/27" hreflang="en">Religion</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Gideon Lincecum moved to Mississippi in 1818. He brought his family, which included his wife Sarah Bryan, two small children, his parents, some siblings, and a few enslaved African-Americans. They settled initially along the Tombigbee River and helped establish the town of Columbus, Mississippi.</p> <p>The Lincecums were part of the hundreds of other new settlers traveling west from the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama during the first two decades of the 19th century. The number of Americans moving west then was so great that historians refer to the movement as the Great Migration.</p> <p>Like those other settlers, Lincecum, a Georgia native, arrived seeking a new life and new opportunities to make a living and support his family. He was a man of many talents. While living in Mississippi, Lincecum cut and sold lumber, hunted, traded merchandise with Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians, and organized a tour of Choctaw stickball players in exhibition games. He served as chief justice of the “Quorum,” a group of people appointed by the Mississippi Legislature to organize Monroe County, was chairman of the school commissioners, and superintendent of the new male and female academies in Monroe County. He dabbled in medicine before becoming a full-time doctor in 1830.</p> <p>He and his family remained in Mississippi for 30 years, for a while living farther north up the Tombigbee River near Cotton Gin Port. In 1848, he moved his family to Texas in search of new borders and new opportunities.</p> <h2>The hunter</h2> <p>To Lincecum and his family, one of the main attractions of the Tombigbee River region, located in eastern Mississippi, was the vast quantities of wildlife. Like many Mississippians of today, Lincecum loved to hunt for sport and to provide food and income for his family. Lincecum quickly made friends with some neighboring Choctaw Indians and frequently hunted with them.</p> <p>He observed with wonder the countless deer, bears, turkeys, ducks, and fish, writing about his family’s early days in Mississippi that “we were all greatly pleased, and supplied our table with a superabundance of fish, fowl, and venison, and occasionally a glorious fleece [meat taken from either side of the hump] of bear meat. The quantity of game that was found in that dark forest and the canebrakes was a subject of wonder to everybody.”</p> <p>Lincecum reported that he killed upwards of 400 deer during his early years in Mississippi, selling their dried hams to boatmen on the Tombigbee River. Packs of wolves also inhabited the region at that time, coming so near to the Lincecum camp that they “could hear them snapping their teeth.”</p> <h2>Enlightened thinker</h2> <p>Lincecum was a busy man willing to try various activities to secure an income and support his family. In this respect he was much like the hundreds of other new immigrants to Mississippi in the first few decades of the 1800s. But in many ways Lincecum was not a typical early American settler. His views on education and religion reflected the Enlightenment ideals of the American founders more than the evangelical patterns of many of his Mississippi neighbors. Even though he was largely self-taught, having learned to read and write and do basic math largely on his own as a youth, Lincecum was a “frontier intellectual” who read constantly and valued education highly.</p> <p>He wanted his ten children to receive the best possible schooling, but that was difficult in the frontier setting of early 19th-century Mississippi. In 1831, while living in Cotton Gin Port, he enrolled six of his children in the only available school, a “highly lauded seminary” in Columbus. Lincecum traveled to Columbus six months after his children started their studies in order to find out how much they had learned. His children told him they had mastered history and geography; however, they could not tell their father what sort of history they now knew, nor could they name the principal rivers in the state of Mississippi or in the United States.</p> <p>Bewildered and fearing that he had wasted money, Lincecum asked his sons and daughters to tell him what they had learned. Their answers revealed that they had been taught only Bible stories and little else. Lincecum was appalled: “I was overwhelmed with disappointment. I felt that the whole world was a sham. My children, after six months’ constant attendance in that highly praised institution, could answer no questions of use. But they had been put on the road to salvation ... .”</p> <p>He immediately pulled his children out of the school and took them back to Cotton Gin Port. Apparently Lincecum relied on home schooling for his children from that point onward. Throughout his life Lincecum remained a committed free thinker and critic of organized religion.</p> <h2>The doctor</h2> <p>Lincecum had studied medicine on his own since 1811, and had periodically provided medical services for his neighbors and other customers. As with education, Lincecum’s views on medicine reflected a willingness to question the established truths of his day and to seek out more practical methods for healing people. In 1830, Lincecum became a full-time doctor near Cotton Gin Port in order to make an income without doing strenuous work, for he had become very sick after physically over-exerting himself. Lincecum practiced allopathic medicine which relied heavily upon bleeding the patient and administering strong drugs, such as mercury.</p> <p>People in early 19th-century Mississippi often caught illnesses. Lincecum wrote that “one or more of the family was sick all the time.” When Lincecum and other Mississippi doctors lost hundreds of patients during a cholera outbreak around 1833, Lincecum became convinced that the medical books of his day did more harm than good, especially the practice of “bleeding” patients to release impurities. “I felt tired of killing people,” he exclaimed, “and concluded to quit the man killing practice.” Lincecum complained that all American medical journals at the time were written by people in the northern states who did not understand southern diseases or the southern environment.</p> <p>He sought out an expert on southern illnesses who knew herbal remedies for most ailments. That expert was a Choctaw doctor called Alikchi Chito (“Great Doctor”) who lived in the Six Towns Division of the Choctaw Nation (the Six Towns, located in the southern region, was one of three ethnic and political divisions among the Choctaws, the other two were called by the Americans the Western and Eastern divisions). Over a period of six weeks, Alikchi Chito taught Lincecum the uses of various plants to cure most types of sickness. From that point onward, Lincecum rejected the so-called remedies published in medical books in favor of herbal medications to treat his patients and called himself a “botanic doctor.”</p> <p>His new medicines worked beyond his expectations and he enjoyed a reputation as a very good doctor the remainder of his time in Mississippi. Herbal remedies are popular today and have always been used in so-called “folk medicine” by various Mississippians. The notable aspect of Lincecum’s medical training is that he learned the most effective medicines from Choctaw and then passed on that knowledge to his patients and other doctors, thus preserving a key aspect of the cultural practices of the original inhabitants of Mississippi.</p> <h2>Friend of Indians</h2> <p>Lincecum interacted with Choctaw and Chickasaw frequently before most of the Native Americans were forcibly removed in the early 1830s by the Mississippi and United States governments. He traded with them, hunted with them, ate meals with them, sought out their knowledge about medicine, learned how to speak and write their language, organized and led a tour of Choctaw stickball players throughout the South in 1829-30, and familiarized himself with much of their history and traditions.</p> <p>Lincecum visited an elderly Choctaw man called Chahta Immataha several times between 1823 and 1825 in order to record the traditional history of the Choctaws. In 1904, the Mississippi Historical Society published parts of that long story, but Lincecum’s entire written history of the Choctaw people, based on what Chahta Immataha told him, exists in the University of Texas Archives.</p> <p>Lincecum knew Choctaw Chief Pushmataha personally and wrote the most valuable description of his life that exists. Unlike many of his early 19th-century Mississippi neighbors, Lincecum viewed Native Americans as people worthy of respect who were every bit equal, and often superior, to Euro-Americans. Where Native Americans had problems, such as with alcohol abuse, Lincecum tended to blame the bad influence of non-natives for the situation.</p> <p>Though overly romantic, Lincecum felt that Native Americans were the most honest and decent people he had ever met. He even suggested that “if there could be born an honest, liberty-loving leader who would take things in hand, concentrate the Indian forces, capture all the praying white races and their allies, the mixed-blood cut throats, and chop off their ... heads, there would remain the most innocent law-abiding people on earth — the pure Indian.”</p> <p>As the Mississippi and U.S. governments forced Native American removal west of the Mississippi River in the early 1830s, Lincecum sympathized with the anti- removal position of most Choctaws and Chickasaws. He singled out the various Christian missionaries living and working among the natives for particular condemnation, believing they did little to stop Indian Removal. Lincecum eloquently described his feelings towards his Native American neighbors when remembering a Choctaw family that passed his home on their way to banishment in Indian Territory in November 1831:</p> <blockquote> <p>“I remember now, though the time has long passed, with feelings of unfeigned gratitude the many kindnesses bestowed on me and my little family in 1818 and 1819 when we were in their neighborhood, before the country began to fill up with other white people ... . We met often, hunted together, fished together, swam together, and they were positively and I have no hesitation in declaring it here, the most truthful, most reliable and best people I have ever dealt with. While we resided in their country my wife had a very severe spell of fever that confined her to bed for several weeks ... kind hearted Chahta women would come often, bringing with them their nicely prepared <em>tampulo</em> water for her to drink, and remaining by the sick bed for hours at a time ... . The time is long gone, and I may never have the pleasure of meeting with any of that most excellent race of people again. But so long as the life pendulum swings in this old time-shattered bosom, I shall remember their many kindnesses to me and mine, with sentiments of kindest affection and deepest gratitude.”</p> </blockquote> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>Gideon Lincecum’s legacy to Mississippi is extensive though it has been under-appreciated. He and his family lived in Mississippi for thirty years and prospered under trying circumstances. Lincecum wrote a detailed autobiography that exposes what life was like in the early years of Mississippi statehood as few other sources can. Some of the most valuable information we have about the Choctaw comes from Lincecum’s writings.</p> <p>Many historians have noticed the significance of Lincecum’s writing, but Lincecum has not yet been recognized as a key figure in Mississippi history despite the fact that three key Lincecum works were published by the Mississippi Historical Society in the early 20th century.</p> <p>One reason for this neglect is that Lincecum and his family moved to Texas. In Texas, Lincecum became renown as a naturalist. He collected plant and animal specimens, corresponded with notable naturalists such as Charles Darwin (sending him forty-eight samples of Texas ants with detailed commentaries), dabbled in geology, recorded weather observations, and tracked drought cycles.</p> <p>All of Lincecum’s work published in his lifetime occurred after he moved to Texas. He contributed plant and animal collections to the Philadelphia Academy of Science and the Smithsonian Institution. He wrote articles for the <em>American Naturalist</em>, the<em> American Sportsman</em>, the <em>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences</em>, the <em>Journal of the Linnaean Society</em>, the <em>Texas Almanac</em>, and newspapers.</p> <p>Lincecum has left a rich record of Mississippi life during a time of massive change and transformation when Mississippi transitioned from Native American to Euro-American control and when frontier lifestyles became increasingly dominated by plantations, large-scale agriculture, and overwhelming dependence on African- American enslavement.</p> <p>Mississippi is fortunate that a person of Lincecum’s high intellect chose to call Mississippi home and to write about all that he saw and did.</p> <p><em>Greg O'Brien, Ph.D., is associate professor of history at the University of Southern Mississippi. He is the author of</em> Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750-1830 <em>(University of Nebraska Press, 2002) and co-editor of</em> George Washington's South<em> (University Press of Florida, 2004). </em></p> <p> </p> <h2> </h2> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h2>Sources</h2> <p>Burkhalter, Lois Wood.<em> Gideon Lincecum, 1793-1874: A Biography</em>. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965.</p> <p>Davis, William C. <em>A Way Through the Wilderness: The Natchez Trace and the Civilization of the Southern Frontier</em>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995.</p> <p>Geiser, Samuel Wood. <em>Naturalists of the Frontier</em>. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1937.</p> <p>Lincecum, Gideon. <em>Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum</em>. Edited by Jerry Bryan Lincecum and Edward Hake Phillips. College Station, Texas: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 1994. (http://www.tamu.edu/upress or 800-826-8911)</p> <p>Lincecum, Gideon. “Autobiography of Gideon Lincecum.”<em> Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society.</em> 8 (1905), 443-519.</p> <p>Lincecum, Gideon. “Choctaw Traditions about Their Settlement in Mississippi and the Origin of Their Mounds.”<em>Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society</em>. 8 (1904), 521-542.</p> <p>Lincecum, Gideon. “Life of Apushimataha.” <em>Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society</em>. 9 (1906), 415-485.</p> <p>Lincecum, Gideon. <em>Pushmataha: A Choctaw Leader and His People</em>. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2004.</p> <p>Lincecum, Gideon. <em>Science on the Texas Frontier: Observations of Dr. Gideon Lincecum</em>. Edited by Jerry Bryan Lincecum, Edward Hake Phillips, and Peggy A. Redshaw. College Station, Texas: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 1997.</p> <p>Oakes, James. <em>The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders</em>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982, pp. 55-57.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/sites/default/files/imported-images/182.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum.From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;M University Press.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum&quot;}" role="button" title="1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum.From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;amp;M University Press." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6856-LIixbegwtvM" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum.From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;M University Press.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/182.jpg" width="550" height="777" alt="1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum" title="1873 photograph of Gideon Lincecum.From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;M University Press." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/sites/default/files/imported-images/183.gif" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;In 1905, the Mississippi Historical Society published Lincecum’s autobiography. View the larger image to read an excerpt. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Reference No. B L62L&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Lincecum’s autobiography&quot;}" role="button" title="In 1905, the Mississippi Historical Society published Lincecum’s autobiography. View the larger image to read an excerpt. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Reference No. B L62L" data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6856-LIixbegwtvM" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;In 1905, the Mississippi Historical Society published Lincecum’s autobiography. View the larger image to read an excerpt. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Reference No. B L62L&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Lincecum’s autobiography&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/183.gif" width="1100" height="2460" alt="Lincecum’s autobiography" title="In 1905, the Mississippi Historical Society published Lincecum’s autobiography. View the larger image to read an excerpt. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Reference No. B L62L" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/sites/default/files/imported-images/184.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The State of Texas erected memorial to Gideon Lincecum in 1936. The inscription reads in part: “A veteran of the War of 1812 / internationally famous botanist / friend of Darwin.” Photo by Peggy A. Redshaw. From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;M University Press.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Memorial to Gideon Lincecum&quot;}" role="button" title="The State of Texas erected memorial to Gideon Lincecum in 1936. The inscription reads in part: “A veteran of the War of 1812 / internationally famous botanist / friend of Darwin.” Photo by Peggy A. Redshaw. From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;amp;M University Press." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6856-LIixbegwtvM" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The State of Texas erected memorial to Gideon Lincecum in 1936. The inscription reads in part: “A veteran of the War of 1812 / internationally famous botanist / friend of Darwin.” Photo by Peggy A. Redshaw. From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;M University Press.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Memorial to Gideon Lincecum&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/184.jpg" width="550" height="789" alt="Memorial to Gideon Lincecum" title="The State of Texas erected memorial to Gideon Lincecum in 1936. The inscription reads in part: “A veteran of the War of 1812 / internationally famous botanist / friend of Darwin.” Photo by Peggy A. Redshaw. From “Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist: The Life and Times of Dr. Gideon Lincecum,” with the permission of Texas A&amp;M University Press." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/gideon-lincecum-1793-1874-mississippi-pioneer-and-man-of-many-talents-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">Gideon Lincecum (1793-1874): Mississippi Pioneer and Man of Many Talents Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Wed, 10 Aug 2005 02:34:04 +0000 usnext 6856 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov