Architecture and Preservation http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/ en Rosenwald Schools in Mississippi http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/rosenwald-schools-in-mississippi <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rosenwald Schools in Mississippi</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Mon, 02/01/2010 - 05:00</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> February 2010 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Jennifer Baughn <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/9" hreflang="en">African American</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/17" hreflang="en">Education</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/6" hreflang="en">Promise and Peril, 1903–1927</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/7" hreflang="en">Bridging Hardship, 1928-1945</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Public schooling in Mississippi did not become commonplace until after the American Civil War. After the United States Supreme Court decided in its 1896 <cite>Plessy v. Ferguson</cite> ruling that states could require separate public facilities for Black and White people as long as they were equal (the so-called “separate but equal” doctrine), White-dominated school boards began concentrating more of their efforts and funding on schools for White children, rather than for Black. By the early 1900s, while many White children studied their textbooks in new functional buildings, Black students were often left to make do in churches, lodges, and poorly constructed buildings that barely kept out the wind and the rain.</p> <p>Beginning in the 1910s, however, new school buildings for African Americans began to spring up on the Mississippi landscape. The schools, constructed as a partnership between the Julius Rosenwald Fund and local citizens, represented a leap forward for Black southerners who wanted to ensure an education for their children. When the philanthropic program ended in 1932, a victim of the Great Depression, more than 5,000 school buildings had been constructed under its auspices in fourteen southern states. Mississippi’s Rosenwald program constructed six hundred and thirty-three schools and ancillary buildings and was the South’s second-largest state program.</p> <h2>The Rosenwald Fund</h2> <p>The Rosenwald Fund — the product of an alliance between Booker T. Washington, president and founder of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, and Julius Rosenwald, president and chief executive officer of Sears, Roebuck &amp; Co. in Chicago — was the only philanthropic effort in the early 20th century to concentrate on improving the learning environment of Black students in the South. The fund accomplished this by giving grants to Black communities to cover about a third of the cost of a building. The communities were expected to match the Rosenwald money with either cash or in-kind contributions of labor and materials and to gain financial support from the public school system. While the communities gained a quality building, they also lost a measure of control over their children’s education when the school, which had usually been run by its own board of trustees, came under the control of the county superintendent of education.</p> <p>Begun at Tuskegee in 1912 and initially focused on the few counties surrounding that campus, the Rosenwald Fund’s fame grew through the extensive personal networks of southern African Americans. By the end of the 1910s, several states surrounding Alabama had a few Rosenwald schools. But after Washington’s death in 1915, Rosenwald lost confidence in the fund’s new leaders at Tuskegee Institute. He moved the fund’s management away from Tuskegee and set up a new office run by foundation professionals in Nashville. During the 1920s, the Rosenwald Fund became increasingly standardized and efficient, approving thousands of grants in all of the southern states.</p> <p>In Mississippi, only a dozen or so schools obtained help in the early years under Tuskegee’s management. The early buildings were not built to standard plans and often were not much better planned than non-Rosenwald schools. A major shift occurred after the Rosenwald Fund’s reorganization in 1919-1920. By 1922, the Rosenwald Fund reported that one hundred and forty-one Rosenwald schools had been built in Mississippi, including fifty-eight three-teacher schools and five houses for teachers.</p> <h2>A new school building</h2> <p>A primary focus of the newly reorganized Rosenwald Fund was the quality of the construction of school buildings that would be built with its funds. The fund wanted to build the most schools it could, but it also wanted them to meet current building standards and to be solidly constructed of good materials. Rosenwald also wanted to incorporate knowledge gained during a decade of careful study into lighting levels and ventilation. At the time, rural schools, and even some town schools, did not have electricity to provide lighting or heat. Thus, lighting needed to come into the building through windows, and studies had shown that schools needed many more windows than had previously been thought in order to give students sufficient light. In addition, new research showed that good ventilation prevented the spread of germs and diseases.</p> <p>Using the findings from a survey of the existing Rosenwald schools by consultant Fletcher B. Dresslar, a recognized authority on the topic of school hygiene and good school planning, the fund, led by its new director Samuel L. Smith, drew a new set of standard plans that would be used to construct almost all Rosenwald schools in the 1920s. From 1920 onward, the Rosenwald Fund’s emphasis moved from funding “better schools” to encouraging “model schools” that could be standards for both Black and White schools in the South.</p> <p>The new plans allowed for a broad variety of schools, based on the number of teachers per school. Ranging from one-classroom structures with a gable front — a common school form in all areas of the country — to large twelve-classroom buildings with auditoriums, the plans relied on simple forms and construction techniques that would be accessible to the many volunteer laborers who built these schools. Several new features of the schools did in fact become models for school architecture in the 1920s, such as:</p> <ul><li>One-story construction, which required slightly more land but was easier to build and was considered a safety improvement following several deadly school fires in two-story buildings.</li> <li>Large groupings of windows, concentrated on the east and west elevations of buildings, became the hallmark of schools for both Black and White students in the 1920s. Previously, rural school buildings would have a few scattered windows, with windows on several walls of each classroom. Studies showed, however, that light from many directions caused a glare that could damage a student’s eyesight.</li> <li>Two school forms, the H-plan and the T-plan, became standard for rural and town schools alike in the 1920s. The Rosenwald standardized plans used these two forms almost exclusively for schools of four classrooms or more. Both plans contained an auditorium for school and community gatherings, but the H-plan was designed to face north or south, with its windows on the sides facing east and west, while the T-plan was designed to face east or west with its windows on the front and back. These simple but effective plans show the ingenuity and flexibility of the Rosenwald Fund’s program and the emphasis on quality even in difficult circumstances.</li> </ul><p>Out of the original five hundred and fifty-seven schools aided by the Rosenwald Fund in Mississippi, only a relative handful are known to survive (see list below). Of these, about half are either greatly altered or in a deteriorated state. The sole surviving one-classroom school is the Bynum School, built in 1926, in Panola County. Two good examples of the H-plan form are the concrete-block building (1926) at the Prentiss Institute in Jefferson Davis County, a six-classroom building constructed according to Rosenwald Plan #6-A, and the Brushy Creek School (circa 1930) in Copiah County, a clapboard Rosenwald Plan #4-A. The Drew Rosenwald school in Sunflower County began as a substantial T-plan Rosenwald, and grew over the years into a sprawling building with a large student population. The T-plan especially was popular because it could easily handle any needed expansion.</p> <p>In addition to the known Rosenwald schools, Mississippi has some “ghost schools,” a group of schools that were supposed to have received Rosenwald Funds but the money was fraudulently diverted for personal use between 1923-1928. The Rosenwald agent at the Mississippi Department of Education, Bura Hilbun, who was responsible for overseeing the Rosenwald Fund in Mississippi and sending in final reports to the Nashville office, was later found to have falsified records and pocketed the money meant for certain schools. Hilbun’s fraud was found after he left the education department. He was convicted of embezzlement in 1931 in the Hinds County Circuit Court, after two hung juries. Hilbun appealed to the Mississippi Supreme Court but it upheld the lower court’s decision.</p> <p>As a result of Hilbun’s falsified records, the historical records of the Rosenwald Fund at Fisk University Archives in Nashville list some schools that were not actually built, thus the “ghost schools.” One of those ghost schools has survived. Poplar Hill School is a rare two-classroom Black school in rural Jefferson County, and while the school appears in the Rosenwald Fund database on the Fisk website, it is not, in fact, a Rosenwald plan and did not receive any Rosenwald funding. This was distressing news to a group of interested alumni who in 2009 pursued a National Register of Historic Places listing for the building as a Rosenwald school. Nonetheless, the building is still significant as a rare surviving rural African-American school, once one of thousands that dotted the Mississippi landscape.</p> <h2>Building school communities</h2> <p>The Rosenwald Fund did not stop with just building new classroom buildings for students. Located in rural areas with poor road systems, the schools came to be somewhat self-sufficient campuses, eventually including not only houses for teachers but also separate buildings for vocational and home economics education.</p> <p>The Rosenwald Fund understood well the challenges of rural schools, and the first and most important one was attracting qualified teachers. School trustees often found it necessary to build a teacher’s house on the campus as a way to entice a principal who could oversee the school’s functioning. Not only did a teacher’s house keep principals and teachers longer at the school, but it provided security for the campus and an on-site alarm in case of fire. As it did with school plans, the fund offered several different house plans for teachers to accommodate families of various sizes. The Rosenwald Fund helped build fifty-eight teacher houses in the state, and many school boards built houses for teachers as well. At least two of the Rosenwald houses still stand in the state, the John White School teacher’s house (1925) in Forrest County and the former president’s house (circa 1930) at Coahoma Community College north of Clarksdale, a campus that began as one of only two agricultural high schools for African Americans. The other school was Hinds County Agricultural High School in Utica (1946).</p> <p>Vocational buildings or shops were also seen as a way to improve both the campus and the school’s educational program. The Rosenwald Fund emphasized vocational education not only because of its origins at Washington’s Tuskegee Institute but because training in agricultural and mechanical skills was thought to be the best way to educate rural children of both races for much of the first half of the 20th century. Indeed, backed by sufficient funding, white consolidated schools of the same period far outstripped Black schools in providing buildings and teachers for vocational and home economics education and were considered better schools because of it. Only eighteen vocational buildings for Black schools were constructed in Mississippi under the Rosenwald program, primarily because of lack of matching funds and because building a vocational building also meant hiring an extra teacher to teach the classes. This was often out of reach for the Rosenwald schools struggling to survive on limited funding from the public school boards.</p> <p>By 1932, two years after Rosenwald’s death and three years after the stock market crash slashed the value of its endowment, the Rosenwald Fund ceased its building program, leaving southern African Americans and southern progressives to find another solution for Black education.</p> <p><cite>Jennifer Baughn is an architectural historian at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History</cite><em>. This article was updated in September 2021.</em></p> <h2>Rosenwald Schools Known to Survive in Mississippi</h2> <ul><li>Bynum School, Panola County (1926)—Plan #1-A.</li> <li>Drew School, Sunflower County (1929)—T-plan, by architect James M. Spain, using Plan #5 as the basic floor plan.</li> <li>Pass Christian (Randolph) School, Pass Christian, Harrison County (1928)—U-plan, not a standardized Rosenwald plan, unknown architect.</li> <li>Brushy Creek School, Copiah County (c.1930)—Plan #4-A (H-plan).</li> <li>Prentiss Institute, Prentiss, Jefferson Davis County (1926)—Plan #6-A (H-plan).</li> <li>Sherman Line School, Amite County (1928)—Plan #3-B.</li> <li>Hollandale School, Washington County (1924)—T-plan, only a section survives and is extensively altered.</li> <li>Nichols Elementary School, Canton, Madison County (1927)—Plan #7 (T-plan).</li> <li>Bay Springs School, Forrest County (1925)—Plan #20 (this is the only remaining building of this most popular two-classroom plan known to survive in the state. Vernon Dahmer, the civil rights leaders slain in a house bombing, lived adjacent to this school and served on its board of trustees).</li> <li>Pantherburn School, Sharkey County (1927)—Plan #400 (now a church and altered).</li> <li>Walthall County Training (Ginntown) School, Walthall County (1920)—Plan #200.</li> <li>Marks School, Quitman County (1922)—not a standardized plan.</li> <li>Swiftown School, Leflore County (1921)—not a standardized plan, not clear whether this is actually a Rosenwald school.</li> <li>Oak Park Principal’s Home and Girls Dormitory, Laurel, Jones County (1928)—not a standardized plan.</li> <li>John White School Teacher’s House, Forrest County (1925)—Plan #302.</li> <li>Coahoma Agricultural High School (now Community College) (c.1930)—Plan #302.</li> <li>Moorhead School Teacher’s House, Sunflower County (1932)—Plan #301.</li> </ul></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>References:</h3> <p>Hoffschwelle, Mary. <cite>Rosenwald Schools in the American South</cite>. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006.</p> <p>“Rosenwald Rural School House Construction to February 1, 1922,” Julius Rosenwald Fund Collection, Box 331, Fisk University Archives, Nashville, Tennessee.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/766.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Built in 1926, the Bynum School in Panola County is the only surviving one-classroom Rosenwald school in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bynum School in Panola County&quot;}" role="button" title="Built in 1926, the Bynum School in Panola County is the only surviving one-classroom Rosenwald school in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Built in 1926, the Bynum School in Panola County is the only surviving one-classroom Rosenwald school in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bynum School in Panola County&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/766.jpg" width="535" height="321" alt="Bynum School in Panola County" title="Built in 1926, the Bynum School in Panola County is the only surviving one-classroom Rosenwald school in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/768.png" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald plan for a one-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald plan, one-teacher school&quot;}" role="button" title="Rosenwald plan for a one-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald plan for a one-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald plan, one-teacher school&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/768.png" width="535" height="702" alt="Rosenwald plan, one-teacher school" title="Rosenwald plan for a one-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/784.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Philanthropist Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932) established the Rosenwald Fund to improve the learning environment for southern black students in the early 20th century. Date of photograph unknown. Courtesy Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-B2-4552-18.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Julius Rosenwald&quot;}" role="button" title="Philanthropist Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932) established the Rosenwald Fund to improve the learning environment for southern black students in the early 20th century. Date of photograph unknown. Courtesy Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-B2-4552-18." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Philanthropist Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932) established the Rosenwald Fund to improve the learning environment for southern black students in the early 20th century. Date of photograph unknown. Courtesy Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-B2-4552-18.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Julius Rosenwald&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/784.jpg" width="535" height="809" alt="Julius Rosenwald" title="Philanthropist Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932) established the Rosenwald Fund to improve the learning environment for southern black students in the early 20th century. Date of photograph unknown. Courtesy Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-B2-4552-18." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/767.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Brushy Creek School, 1930, in Copiah County, Mississippi, is an example of the Rosenwald H-plan form. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Crushy Creek School&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/767.jpg" width="535" height="325" alt="Crushy Creek School" title="Brushy Creek School, 1930, in Copiah County, Mississippi, is an example of the Rosenwald H-plan form. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/770.png" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald plan for a three-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Three-teacher school plan&quot;}" role="button" title="Rosenwald plan for a three-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald plan for a three-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Three-teacher school plan&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/770.png" width="535" height="702" alt="Three-teacher school plan" title="Rosenwald plan for a three-teacher school. Courtesy Julius Rosenwald Fund, Community School Plans, Bulletin No. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, 1924." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/780.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Sherman Line School in Amite County, Mississippi, built in 1928. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sherman Line School in Mississippi&quot;}" role="button" title="Sherman Line School in Amite County, Mississippi, built in 1928. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Sherman Line School in Amite County, Mississippi, built in 1928. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sherman Line School in Mississippi&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/780.jpg" width="535" height="356" alt="Sherman Line School in Mississippi" title="Sherman Line School in Amite County, Mississippi, built in 1928. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/769.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald school at Bay Springs (1925) is the only two-classroom plan known to survive in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bay Springs school&quot;}" role="button" title="Rosenwald school at Bay Springs (1925) is the only two-classroom plan known to survive in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald school at Bay Springs (1925) is the only two-classroom plan known to survive in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bay Springs school&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/769.jpg" width="535" height="342" alt="Bay Springs school" title="Rosenwald school at Bay Springs (1925) is the only two-classroom plan known to survive in Mississippi. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/771.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Built in 1926, the concrete-block Prentiss Institute in Jefferson Davis County, Mississippi, is a six-classroom building in the Rosenwald H-plan form. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Prentiss Institute&quot;}" role="button" title="Built in 1926, the concrete-block Prentiss Institute in Jefferson Davis County, Mississippi, is a six-classroom building in the Rosenwald H-plan form. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7093-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Built in 1926, the concrete-block Prentiss Institute in Jefferson Davis County, Mississippi, is a six-classroom building in the Rosenwald H-plan form. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Prentiss Institute&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/771.jpg" width="535" height="359" alt="Prentiss Institute" title="Built in 1926, the concrete-block Prentiss Institute in Jefferson Davis County, Mississippi, is a six-classroom building in the Rosenwald H-plan form. Photograph by Jennifer Baughn. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/779.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The John White teacher&#039;s home in Forrest County, Mississippi. The Rosenwald Fund often found it necessary to build a teacher&#039;s house on campus to attract qualified teachers. 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Photograph used by permission of The Fisk University Franklin Library, Special Collections.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosenwald teacher home&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/779.jpg" width="535" height="346" alt="Rosenwald teacher home" title="The John White teacher&#039;s home in Forrest County, Mississippi. The Rosenwald Fund often found it necessary to build a teacher&#039;s house on campus to attract qualified teachers. Photograph used by permission of The Fisk University Franklin Library, Special Collections." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Mon, 01 Feb 2010 11:00:00 +0000 usnext 7093 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Fri, 01/01/2010 - 05:00</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> January 2010 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Todd Sanders <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/6" hreflang="en">Promise and Peril, 1903–1927</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/7" hreflang="en">Bridging Hardship, 1928-1945</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/8" hreflang="en">Forging Ahead, 1946–Present</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>As the 20th century dawned, Mississippians’ hope for the future was often expressed in the buildings they built. There was a revival in the architecture of not only the ancient classical past, but also that of the earliest days of our nation’s history.</p> <h3>Beaux Arts style</h3> <p>The Beaux Arts style originated in Paris at the École des Beaux Arts.  The finest building in this style in Mississippi is its State Capitol, completed in 1903. Beaux Arts is an eclectic form of Neoclassicism combining classical architecture from ancient Greece and Rome with Renaissance ideas. It is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, grandiosity, and elaborate ornamentation.  The style is most commonly used for public buildings such as museums, railway stations, libraries, banks, courthouses, and government buildings.  Other prominent Mississippi buildings in the Beaux Arts style include Ricks Memorial Library in Yazoo City and the Meridian City Hall.</p> <p>A slightly simpler interpretation of Beaux Arts is the Classical Revival, which can be seen in the Galloway Memorial Methodist Church in Jackson, and in the synagogues in Natchez and Greenville.  Many houses were built in the Classical Revival style as well, among the best of which are the Garner Green House and the Merrill Maley House, both located in Jackson and built about 1910.</p> <h3>Colonial Revival style</h3> <p>The Colonial Revival style arrived in Mississippi around 1890.  The style grew out of the 1876 centennial exposition held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to celebrate 100 years of nationhood.  The style reflected American patriotism, and was based on an idealized version of the colonial architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries. It was popular for houses as well as public and institutional buildings.  The John Dicks House in Natchez, constructed circa 1888-1889, is probably the earliest example of the Colonial Revival style in Mississippi.  It was designed by Sidney Stratton of McKim, Mead and White, one of the nation’s most prominent architectural firms.  A later example, circa 1913, is the Lampton-Wallace-McRae House in Jackson, which shows how the style evolved from an eclectic reinterpretation to a more historically correct style.  The Levee Street Railroad Station in Vicksburg, 1907, and Hawkins Field Terminal in Jackson, circa 1935, are good examples of this style used for transportation buildings.  During the Great Depression of the 1930s many post office buildings were constructed in a simplified Colonial Revival style, such as the Belzoni Post Office, 1937.   </p> <p>After World War II the Colonial Revival in Mississippi evolved into a style that emulated the great Greek Revival houses of the antebellum period.  The revival was so widespread that some pundits have referred to it as “Greek Survival.”  Most of Mississippi’s welcome centers and interstate rest stops are constructed in this style, as are many courthouses; for example, the courthouses in Noxubee and Oktibbeha counties, built in 1952 and 1963 respectively.</p> <h3>Neogothic style</h3> <p>The Neogothic style, so called to differentiate it from the mid-19th century Gothic Revival, was popular in the 1920s and 1930s, between World War I and World War II.  The various interpretations of the style run from serious interpretations and actual copies of major Gothic and Tudor period buildings, all the way to “storybook” cottage-style houses that were playful but not exact copies.  The majority of Mississippi buildings in this style meet roughly in the middle of the interpretations.  To illustrate the difference between these two approaches, one can compare the Laurel First Presbyterian Church, one of the state’s finest examples of the early 20th century Neogothic movement, built in 1924-1925, with the Crawford Street Methodist Church constructed in Vicksburg around the same time, but in a less academic interpretation.</p> <p>Many houses were built in versions of the Gothic style, from Castle Crest, circa 1925, located in Jackson, to the Tudor Revival style home of <a href="/issue/eudora-welty" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Eudora Welty,</a> circa 1925, also in Jackson.  Mississippi’s first skyscraper, the twelve-story Lamar Life Building in Jackson, 1925, is constructed in the Neogothic style.  Many schools were also constructed in this mode, such as the former Natchez High School, 1927.</p> <h3>Craftsman style</h3> <p>Growing out of the arts and crafts movement of mid-19th century England as a reaction to the over-industrialization of art and architecture, the Craftsman style focused on craftsmanship and the honest use of materials. A Craftsman bungalow is an early 20th century house, usually modest in size, of one and one half stories, with a low-pitched roof with wide overhanging eaves supported by exposed rafter tails.  A full-width front porch with battered wooden columns resting on brick piers or a low brick wall is most often seen in the bungalow.  The windows are usually grouped into twos or threes and the upper sash is typically divided into multiple decorative lights.  This style was built all over Mississippi from the 1910s until the late 1940s.  An early and fine interpretation is the 1910 Clark House located in Tupelo. A later and more frequent interpretation of the style is seen in a 1925 bungalow located in Hattiesburg (see photograph).  </p> <h3>Art Deco style</h3> <p>Art Deco was a popular international design movement beginning after the 1925 International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Art held in Paris.  Art Deco buildings in Mississippi fall into two basic versions.  The “decorative” form, which includes abstract decoration inspired by such diverse sources as ancient Egyptian and Babylonian architectural elements all the way to designs based on abstract geometric shapes as well as leaves and flowers.  These elements were usually cast in brightly hued terra cotta.  Mississippi’s three Art Deco skyscrapers, all 1929-1930, are the state’s best examples of this interpretation: the Threefoot Building in Meridian; the Plaza Building, located on Congress Street between Capitol and Amite streets, in Jackson; and the Tower Building, also known as the Standard Life Building, located on the northwest corner of Roach and Pearl streets, in Jackson.</p> <p>The other version of Art Deco is the “simplified, or stripped, classical mode.”  Unlike the decorative form, this type uses monochromatic stone or brick and is built in a shape reminiscent of classical temples.  Two of the best Mississippi examples of this style are the War Memorial Building in Jackson, circa 1940, and the Meridian Post Office of the late 1930s.</p> <h3>Art Moderne style</h3> <p>Art Moderne, the next architectural movement to make an impact in 20th-century Mississippi, is sleek and plain rather than highly decorated, in contrast to Art Deco.  Art Moderne style originated with European architects who wanted to use the principles of pure classical architecture to design simple, useful structures that incorporated modern building materials such as structural steel, reinforced concrete, glass block, and aluminum and stainless steel windows and doors.  In further contrast to Art Deco, Art Moderne usually has a strong horizontal orientation often incorporating flat roofs with no cornice or eaves.  This helps convey a sense of speed or movement which is one of the reasons this style was so popular for structures associated with transportation.  Mississippi’s best examples of this style are the former Greyhound Bus Terminal in Jackson, 1937, and the former Naval Reserve Building in Jackson, circa 1949.</p> <h3>Ranch House style</h3> <p>The most influential new house style of the post World War II era was the Ranch House. The Ranch House style began in the early 20th century in the southwest and California as an outgrowth of the colonial revival.  The style was an attempt to revive the indigenous ranch house architecture of the southwest region. The one-story-house form, with its low-pitched hip or gable overhanging roof that is seen everywhere in post World War II suburban United States, owes its overall form and many of its details — board-and-batten siding, brick wainscoting, low foundation, etc. — to the ranch houses of the 19th century American West.  </p> <h3>International style</h3> <p>The International style, begun in the 1920s in Germany, also made its appearance in Mississippi following World War II.  This style is known and named for its attempt to remove all historical and regional decorative elements from architecture and focus instead on the structure itself, how it was constructed and the materials used.  Architectural decoration of the exterior is generally limited to the use of long rows of windows arranged in a “ribbon” emphasizing the horizontal plane of the structure, and occasionally the use of overhangs.  Brick veneer was also used in contrast with stone or cast stone but neither material was given any decorative detail.  There are several fine, architect-designed examples of this style in the state, many located in Jackson — two of the best examples are the former United Gas Company Building, now Mississippi College School of Law, built in 1954, and the original building for the University of Mississippi Medical Center, completed about 1955.  </p> <p>There are examples of the influence of the International style on the domestic architecture of Mississippi.  One of the finest is the Weiner House, built in 1951 in Jackson.  Often viewed as cold and unwelcoming, this style never really caught on for residential architecture in Mississippi.</p> <h3>Suburban sprawl; historic preservation movement</h3> <p>The unprecedented growth and prosperity following World War II led to sprawling suburban residential development. As part of this new development, a new retail form emerged, known today as a shopping center or strip mall.  The first one built in Mississippi was the Woodland Hills Shopping Center in Jackson, circa 1946.  The new retail centers were different from earlier commercial developments in that they were fronted by, and often surrounded by, large parking lots.</p> <p>As cities spread ever outward across the United States, efforts to revive America’s downtowns began.  These efforts, coupled with the desire to provide the quickest and easiest automobile route from downtown to the suburbs, inadvertently led to the loss of many of America’s historic downtown buildings.  Moreover, many communities were quite shabby after years of neglect due to the Great Depression and World War II.  The federal government responded with a concept known as Urban Renewal.  Rather than renewing downtowns, this program instead caused the destruction of a large number of historic buildings and replaced them with suburban-type office blocks with large-scale parking space.  For example, an area of downtown Jackson along West Capitol Street was demolished in the late 1970s and early 1980s.</p> <p>The destruction of the nation’s physical heritage caught the attention of the public and in 1966 led to passage of the National Historic Preservation Act. This act created the National Register of Historic Places and provided for a public role in the expenditure of funds that affected the nation’s historic resources.  While this legislation marked the beginning of the government’s regulatory role in effective, local preservation that involved federal taxpayer dollars, it took many years before the program was fully understood and implemented. In some cases it was too late to save endangered historic properties. To further support historic preservation, the federal government amended the federal tax code to encourage the rehabilitation of historic properties through historic preservation tax credits, first made available in the mid-1970s. It would be 2006 before Mississippi passed a state historic preservation tax credit program.</p> <p>The renewed interest in America’s architectural history not only encouraged a reinvestment in genuine historic buildings, downtowns, and neighborhoods, but it led to a revival of many of the architectural styles of the past.  Many new subdivisions developed in the late 1970s and 1980s had design covenants requiring that the houses in the subdivision have architectural details inspired by the architecture of an earlier time.  Often these subdivisions include public green spaces or parks and sidewalks, elements which had largely been forgotten in the automobile obsessed mid-20th century. </p> <p>At the end of the 20th century, interest had developed in the historic preservation of the earliest of the post-World War II architecture, now often referred to as “mid-century modern.” This interest has led to the listing on the National Register of Historic Places some of the buildings and neighborhoods that so redefined our cities and towns after World War II.  </p> <p><cite>Todd Sanders is an architectural historian at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History</cite>.</p> <p>This is part two of a two-part article, Architecture in Mississippi. Part I covers <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Mississippi Architecture: From Prehistoric to 1900</a>.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>Reference:</h3> <p>Statewide Inventory Files (Historic Preservation Division), Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/752.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Beaux Arts style in Mississippi includes the Meridian City Hall. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Meridian City Hall&quot;}" role="button" title="The Beaux Arts style in Mississippi includes the Meridian City Hall. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Beaux Arts style in Mississippi includes the Meridian City Hall. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Meridian City Hall&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/752.jpg" width="535" height="375" alt="Meridian City Hall" title="The Beaux Arts style in Mississippi includes the Meridian City Hall. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/754.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Merrill Maley House in Jackson, circa 1910, is among the houses built in the Classical Revival style, a simpler interpretation of Beaux Arts style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Merrill Maley House&quot;}" role="button" title="The Merrill Maley House in Jackson, circa 1910, is among the houses built in the Classical Revival style, a simpler interpretation of Beaux Arts style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Merrill Maley House in Jackson, circa 1910, is among the houses built in the Classical Revival style, a simpler interpretation of Beaux Arts style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Merrill Maley House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/754.jpg" width="535" height="357" alt="Merrill Maley House" title="The Merrill Maley House in Jackson, circa 1910, is among the houses built in the Classical Revival style, a simpler interpretation of Beaux Arts style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/753.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The John Dicks House in Natchez is the earliest example of the Colonial Revival style in Mississippi. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;John Dicks House&quot;}" role="button" title="The John Dicks House in Natchez is the earliest example of the Colonial Revival style in Mississippi. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The John Dicks House in Natchez is the earliest example of the Colonial Revival style in Mississippi. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;John Dicks House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/753.jpg" width="535" height="384" alt="John Dicks House" title="The John Dicks House in Natchez is the earliest example of the Colonial Revival style in Mississippi. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/755.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Noxubee County Courthouse in Macon, Mississippi, is an example of courthouses built in the Colonial Revival style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Noxubee County Courthouse&quot;}" role="button" title="The Noxubee County Courthouse in Macon, Mississippi, is an example of courthouses built in the Colonial Revival style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Noxubee County Courthouse in Macon, Mississippi, is an example of courthouses built in the Colonial Revival style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Noxubee County Courthouse&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/755.jpg" width="535" height="427" alt="Noxubee County Courthouse" title="The Noxubee County Courthouse in Macon, Mississippi, is an example of courthouses built in the Colonial Revival style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/756.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The First Presbyterian Church in Laurel, Mississippi, built in 1924-1925, is one of the state&#039;s finest examples of early 20th century Neogothic. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Laurel First Presbyterian Church, Mississippi&quot;}" role="button" title="The First Presbyterian Church in Laurel, Mississippi, built in 1924-1925, is one of the state&#039;s finest examples of early 20th century Neogothic. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The First Presbyterian Church in Laurel, Mississippi, built in 1924-1925, is one of the state&#039;s finest examples of early 20th century Neogothic. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Laurel First Presbyterian Church, Mississippi&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/756.jpg" width="535" height="420" alt="Laurel First Presbyterian Church, Mississippi" title="The First Presbyterian Church in Laurel, Mississippi, built in 1924-1925, is one of the state&#039;s finest examples of early 20th century Neogothic. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/757.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi, circa 1925, is a less academic interpretation of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi&quot;}" role="button" title="The Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi, circa 1925, is a less academic interpretation of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi, circa 1925, is a less academic interpretation of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/757.jpg" width="535" height="448" alt="Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi" title="The Crawford Street Methodist Church in Vicksburg, Mississippi, circa 1925, is a less academic interpretation of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/763.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Built in 1925, Castle Crest in Jackson is an example of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Castle Crest in Jackson&quot;}" role="button" title="Built in 1925, Castle Crest in Jackson is an example of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Built in 1925, Castle Crest in Jackson is an example of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Castle Crest in Jackson&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/763.jpg" width="535" height="363" alt="Castle Crest in Jackson" title="Built in 1925, Castle Crest in Jackson is an example of the Neogothic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/758.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;This 1925 bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, represents a frequent interpretation of the Craftsman style, which was a style built all over Mississippi from the 1910s to the late 1940s. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi&quot;}" role="button" title="This 1925 bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, represents a frequent interpretation of the Craftsman style, which was a style built all over Mississippi from the 1910s to the late 1940s. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;This 1925 bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, represents a frequent interpretation of the Craftsman style, which was a style built all over Mississippi from the 1910s to the late 1940s. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/758.jpg" width="535" height="354" alt="Bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi" title="This 1925 bungalow in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, represents a frequent interpretation of the Craftsman style, which was a style built all over Mississippi from the 1910s to the late 1940s. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/759.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Threefoot Building in Meridian is one of Mississippi&#039;s three Art Deco style skyscrapers, built 1929-1930. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/760.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;One of Mississippi&#039;s best examples of the Art Moderne style is the former Naval Reserve Building in Jackson. 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The Ranch House was the most influential new house style of the post-World War II era. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6791-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ranch House style in Jackson, Mississippi. The Ranch House was the most influential new house style of the post-World War II era. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Ranch House style&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/762.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Ranch House style" title="Ranch House style in Jackson, Mississippi. The Ranch House was the most influential new house style of the post-World War II era. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;United Gas Company Building in Jackson, Mississippi&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/761.jpg" width="535" height="343" alt="United Gas Company Building in Jackson, Mississippi" title="Built in 1954, the United Gas Company Building in Jackson, now the Mississippi College School of Law, is a good example of the International style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/architecture-in-mississippi-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Fri, 01 Jan 2010 11:00:00 +0000 usnext 6791 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900 http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Tue, 12/01/2009 - 05:00</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> December 2009 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Todd Sanders <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/20" hreflang="en">European settlement</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1" hreflang="en">The First Peoples to 1518</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The study of historic architectural styles provides us a unique way to learn how our ancestors lived and worked, how and what they built, and what they thought about themselves and their society as expressed in their buildings. Mississippi has a wide variety of architectural styles. Here is an overview of them.</p> <h3>Vernacular style</h3> <p>Vernacular architecture is a traditional form of building that reflects local environmental influences, uses locally available building materials, and is passed down from generation to generation.  The earthen mounds built by prehistoric native peoples are Mississippi’s oldest examples of vernacular architecture, if architecture is defined simply as structures built by humans. The mounds were elevated bases for either temples or homes of tribal leaders, or they may have served as elevated ceremonial platforms.  Winterville Mounds near Greenville and Emerald Mound near Natchez are two of the best examples of prehistoric structures in Mississippi.</p> <p>European colonists built the oldest surviving buildings in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Timber was plentiful and early buildings in Mississippi were constructed with heavy timber framing. Brick was used to a lesser extent; very little stone was used since it was difficult and expensive to acquire. </p> <p>The French were the first Europeans to establish permanent settlements on the Gulf of Mexico coastline in 1699 near present-day Ocean Springs, Mississippi, and around 1716 along the Mississippi River at present-day Natchez. The early colonists developed a house form based on their French building traditions, use of local building materials, and construction that made it easier to endure the effects of the hot and humid climate. Their house form is called the Creole Cottage. It is a one-story, or one-and-one-half-story, house that is one-room deep, two or three rooms wide, with an overhanging roof sheltering an undercut front gallery, or porch. It is usually built on a raised foundation.  The back of the cottage might have a rear gallery, but often there is a recessed loggia, a centered small porch open to the outside on only one elevation.  The loggia is flanked by smaller rooms, called cabinet (pronounced kah-be-nay) rooms.  Access to the second, or attic, floor is usually by a ladder or small staircase from the rear loggia or a cabinet room.</p> <p>A good example of a Creole Cottage, and the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley, is the De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi.  It was built around 1770 as part of an early plantation.</p> <p>After 1763, the British were the next Europeans to take control of this area and it became British West Florida. Many settlers of British ancestry moved into the area from the country’s older east coast colonies, or from Britain itself.  Since the Creole Cottage form developed by the French worked very well in the hot humid climate, many elements of the form were retained. The Anglo-American settlers, however, did bring some ideas of their own.  While the Creole Cottage is horizontal in orientation, a long, thin form that appears to hug the ground, the new colonists brought forms that were more vertical.  King’s Tavern, believed to be the oldest standing structure in Natchez, is a good example of this influence.  King’s Tavern is a full two stories and has an attached porch rather than the integral undercut gallery.</p> <p>The British lost control of West Florida to the Spanish during the American Revolution.  In 1790 the Spanish laid out the new town of Natchez on the Mississippi River bluffs.  Prior to this, Natchez consisted only of the settlement along the banks of the river with Fort Rosalie on the bluffs above.  The best example of Spanish Colonial architecture in Natchez is Texada, a town house built in the late 1790s by Manuel Texada.  As originally constructed, this two-and-one-half-story brick house had living quarters on the second floor.  The first floor was built for commercial use.  The town house sits directly adjacent to the sidewalk; the porch is on the rear.  Texada is the oldest surviving brick building in Mississippi.</p> <p>The Spanish left in 1798 when the United States took control of the area and established the Mississippi Territory.  Many settlers from the older, established areas of the United States flowed into the new territory and brought with them their own vernacular architectural traditions.  </p> <p>While the new settlers adopted the Creole Cottage, they too made changes to reflect their traditions, particularly the addition of the center hall, one of the characteristic architectural elements used by the Anglo-American settlers. In a house built along typical Anglo-American lines, the front entrance opens into a wide center hall flanked by one or two rooms.  If there is an upper floor, the staircase usually rises from the center hall. </p> <p>The settlers also brought the log cabin to Mississippi. Introduced to North America by Scandinavian colonists in the 17th century, log construction quickly became popular among all North American colonists since the log cabin made sense in a country with abundant forests.  Consequently, many Mississippians lived in simple one-room log cabins.  Often the early cabins were expanded by the addition of a second cabin connected to the first by an open passage known as a “dog trot.”  A dog trot is different from a center hall although the two are often confused.  A center hall was built as an enclosed room with doors at each end.  A dog trot is an open passageway with no provision made to close off the ends.  Many dog trots were later enclosed however. A more formal house type introduced by the new settlers is the I-House; a two-story, one-room deep house, usually with a center hall. </p> <p>Another vernacular house form built in Mississippi during the 19th century was the Planter’s Cottage.  The Planter’s Cottage is a small, one-, or one-and-one-half, story house with a center hall and usually either one or two rooms deep.  It can be further defined by whether it has a portico or a gallery across the front.  Generally the porticoed version is found in North Mississippi and the galleried version in South Mississippi. The use of the term “Planter’s Cottage” does not indicate that all the houses were built for or occupied by planters.  In fact, many were built in towns and cities for doctors, lawyers, merchants, and other professionals.  The term reflects that this relatively small and modest house form was the most common type found on many Mississippi plantations.  The large two-story, columned mansion, which is often associated with the plantation, is more often found in or near a settlement and are town houses, or suburban villas, rather than plantation houses.</p> <p>These basic vernacular forms dominated Mississippi’s early domestic architecture until after the American Civil War. Other buildings constructed during this earliest period, such as courthouses, schools, stores, banks, and churches, were generally one-room structures devoid of any individual architectural character.</p> <h3>Federal style</h3> <p>The first architectural style to appear in Mississippi was the Federal style.  This style, based on the neo-classical architecture of the British architects Robert and James Adam, was the most popular architectural style along the eastern coast of North America during the early years of the Federal Republic, hence the name Federal style.  It makes use of classical columns and ornament inspired by ancient Roman architecture.  In addition to the classical columns, the Federal style is identified by the use of semi-circular fanlights over doors, oval windows in pediments, and delicately carved interior woodwork. The best Federal style architecture in Mississippi is found in the old Natchez District, the area of Southwest Mississippi centered on Natchez, since it was the wealthiest, most settled area of the state at the time.  The best example of this style is Auburn, a suburban villa constructed near Natchez about 1812.  </p> <p>It was also during the Federal style period that the first substantial public buildings, churches, and commercial buildings began to appear.  The First Presbyterian Church in Natchez and the Presbyterian Church at Rodney are good examples of this style.  </p> <h3>Greek Revival style</h3> <p>In the 1830s, the Greek Revival architectural style first appeared in Natchez and is the style most often associated with the antebellum South.  The Greek Revival style, identified by its tall white columns, is a reinterpretation of the architecture of Ancient Greece, the birthplace of democracy.  The idea of reviving the architecture of ancient democracy in the world’s first modern democracy appealed to early 19th century Americans and became the first style found throughout the country. Greek Revival dominated building in Mississippi until after the Civil War. Ancient Greek temples were built of stone, but Americans usually built their new “temples” of wood or brick, covered in stucco and decorated to look like stone.  The Greek Revival style was used for residences, banks, schools, courthouses, churches, commercial buildings, state capitols, hospitals, and even outhouses.  There are many theories as to why this style remained popular for so long. One of the obvious is that a monumental building could be created with readily available local materials and with relatively modest craftsmanship.</p> <p>The first Greek Revival structure in Mississippi is the Natchez Agricultural Bank of 1833.  It was quickly followed by the houses Ravenna and Richmond, both circa 1835.  The Commercial Bank of 1836, also in Natchez, is the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble façade.  Perhaps the most famous Greek Revival buildings in Mississippi are the Old Capitol, circa 1840, and the Governor’s Mansion, circa 1842.</p> <h3>Gothic Revival style</h3> <p>The first non-classical architectural style to become popular in Mississippi was Gothic Revival.  This style imitated the great stone cathedrals and castles of Europe but was adapted to American needs and materials. The ready availability of lumber and factory-made architectural trim created a distinctly American version of Gothic Revival.  Hallmarks of the style are steeply pitched roofs that give a sense of height and a strong vertical emphasis, elaborate gable decorations, pointed arch windows, board and batten siding, stucco over brick treated to imitate stone, and one-story porches.  The Gothic Revival style was used primarily in Mississippi for churches such as the Chapel of the Cross in Madison, Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, St. Mary’s in Natchez, and the Church of the Annunciation in Columbus.  There were several fine houses built in the style as well, such as the Manship House in Jackson and Airliewood in Holly Springs.</p> <h3>Romanesque Revival style</h3> <p>A related style is the Romanesque Revival style.  Before the Civil War it was used exclusively on churches as an alternative to the Gothic Revival.  The main difference was the use of round or Roman arches instead of the pointed arches of the Gothic.  The best known example of this style in Mississippi is the First Presbyterian Church in Port Gibson.</p> <p>The Romanesque style returned after the war, and while still employed as religious architecture, it found its way into many other building types. No known houses were constructed in this style, however. The style remained popular in Mississippi until the early 1900s. Buildings in this style are usually constructed of brick with low, broad Roman arches, often incorporating patterned masonry over windows and doorways. Some good examples of buildings in the Romanesque style include the Tate County Courthouse at Senatobia, the old Wesson School at Wesson, and Trinity Episcopal Church in Vicksburg.</p> <h3>Italianate style</h3> <p>The Italianate style was the next architectural style to arrive in Mississippi.  Beginning in England with the picturesque movement of the 1840s when builders began to design fanciful recreations of Italian Renaissance villas, Italianate was the most popular house style in the United States by the late 1860s, and remained so in Mississippi until the 1880s. Italianate houses generally have low pitched roofs, wide overhanging eaves with heavy brackets and cornices, and Roman or segmented arches above the doors and windows.  Italianate houses also tend to be more irregular and asymmetrical in plan than earlier styles and often incorporate towers or cupolas.  Italianate was also readily adapted to other building types and was especially popular for commercial buildings.  Among the best of Mississippi’s antebellum Italianate houses are Ammadale in Oxford and Rosedale in Columbus.  Vicksburg has many fine postbellum Italianate houses, such as the Beck House.</p> <h3>Eclectic style</h3> <p>By the mid-1850s, many Mississippians began to meld the Greek Revival style with the Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce a very eclectic style.  While this occurred all across the state, nowhere was it as successful as in Columbus.  Some of the best examples of this type are the Old Fort House and Shadowlawn.</p> <p>After the Civil War ended and Mississippians began to put their lives back together and to repair war-damaged buildings or to build anew, they built at first in one of the many styles popular before the war. It wasn’t long, however, before a new way of building and a new style emerged.</p> <h3>Victorian Vernacular style</h3> <p>As the railroads across the state were repaired and expanded following the war, factory-made building parts could be sent to far corners of the state from virtually anywhere in the country. The rise of industrialization after the war made it easier and more affordable to add decorative details to otherwise simple buildings. A crate of mass-produced decorative trim, such as scrolled brackets, might find its way from Chicago or St. Louis to carpenters in Brookhaven or Iuka where they could mix and match the pieces according to personal whim, or whatever they had on hand. Moreover, sophisticated woodworking machinery was now available. Many buildings and houses were adorned with flat, jigsaw-cut trim in a variety of patterns or they were decorated with spindles or other lathe-turned woodwork. For ease of classification this style is referred to as the “Victorian Vernacular” style. Buildings are usually square or rectangular and symmetrical in shape, often with projecting front wings that give the floor plan the L shape.</p> <h3>Second Empire style</h3> <p>The Second Empire style, a style similar to the Italianate style, made a brief appearance in Mississippi immediately after the Civil War. While this style was developed in France during the reign of Napleon <span class="caps">III</span> in the 1850s and based on the elaborate architecture of 17th century France, it did not reach Mississippi until after the war was over. Once the war ended and new construction began, very few people had the money or interest to build in such an elaborate style. The main feature of this style is the tall mansard roof, and the best example of the Second Empire style in Mississippi is the Schwartz House in Natchez.</p> <h3>Queen Anne style</h3> <p>The first new formal architectural style to arrive in Mississippi after the Civil War was the Queen Anne style. The style originated in Great Britain in the 1870s as a protest over the industrialization of architecture. To find an architectural style that they viewed to be more correctly British, many British architects looked back to styles of the late 17th and early 18th centuries — the era of Queen Anne, hence the name. Ironically, when Queen Anne style became popular in the United States in the 1880s and 1890s, the new technologies of the industrial revolution encouraged builders to use mass-produced pre-cut architectural trim to create fanciful and sometimes flamboyant buildings. As a result, the style was “corrupted” to become what its originators had protested against.</p> <p>The Queen Anne style arrived in Mississippi in the 1880s and remained popular through the early years of the 20th century. In fact, when people use the term “Victorian house” they are usually referring to the Queen Anne style. Queen Anne houses and buildings often have towers, turrets, wrap-around porches, and other fanciful details inspired by the late Gothic and early Renaissance architecture of Great Britain. Among Mississippi’s best houses in the Queen Anne style are the McCloud House in Hattiesburg, the Jones-Biggers House in Corinth, and the Keyhole House in Natchez. The Queen Anne style was used effectively on public and institutional buildings such as the River Commission Building in Vicksburg, Ventress Hall at the University of Mississippi, and the Holmes County Courthouse in Lexington.</p> <p><cite>Todd Sanders is an architectural historian at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History</cite>.</p> <p>*This is the first part of a two-part article on Mississippi architecture. The second part is <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</a>.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>Reference:</h3> <p>Statewide Inventory Files (Historic Preservation Division), Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</p> <h3>Suggested reading:</h3> <p>Crocker, Mary Wallace. <cite>Historic Architecture of Mississippi</cite>. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 1973.</p> <p>Delehanty, Randolph, Van Jones Martin, Ronald W. Miller, Mary Warren Miller, and Elizabeth Macneil Boggess. <cite>Classic Natchez</cite>. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1996.</p> <p>Miller, Mary Carol. <cite>Great Houses of Mississippi</cite>. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 2009.</p> <p>Miller, Mary Carol. <cite>Lost Mansions of Mississippi</cite>. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 1996.</p> <p>Sanders, Todd. <cite>Jackson’s North State Street</cite>. Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2009.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/736.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Creole Cottage&quot;}" role="button" title="The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Creole Cottage&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/736.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Creole Cottage" title="The French colonists developed the Creole Cottage, the earliest house form designed in the area that would become the state of Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/737.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;De La Point-Krebs House&quot;}" role="button" title="The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;De La Point-Krebs House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/737.jpg" width="535" height="358" alt="De La Point-Krebs House" title="The De La Point-Krebs house in Pascagoula, Mississippi, built around 1770, is a good example of the Creole Cottage, and is the earliest surviving building in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/738.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;I-House forms&quot;}" role="button" title="Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;I-House forms&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/738.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="I-House forms" title="Anglo-American settlers introduced the vernacular I-House form to Mississippi. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/739.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Planter&#039;s Cottage&quot;}" role="button" title="Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Planter&#039;s Cottage&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/739.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Planter&#039;s Cottage" title="Drawings of the vernacular Planter&#039;s Cottage, the most common house form found on many Mississippi plantations. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/740.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Auburn house&quot;}" role="button" title="Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Auburn house&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/740.jpg" width="535" height="682" alt="Auburn house" title="Auburn, a suburban villa built near Natchez about 1812, is an example of the Federal style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/741.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Ravenna&quot;}" role="button" title="Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Ravenna&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/741.jpg" width="535" height="358" alt="Ravenna" title="Ravenna, a Greek Revival house in Natchez, was built in 1835. The Greek Revival architectural style is the one most often associated with the antebellum South. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/742.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Commercial Bank in Natchez&quot;}" role="button" title="The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Commercial Bank in Natchez&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/742.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Commercial Bank in Natchez" title="The Commercial Bank in Natchez, built in 1836, in the only Greek Revival structure in Mississippi with a real marble facade. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/743.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church&quot;}" role="button" title="Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Grace Episcopal Church&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/743.jpg" width="535" height="677" alt="Grace Episcopal Church" title="Grace Episcopal Church in Canton, Mississippi, is an example of Gothic Revival, a style that was used primarily in Mississippi for churches. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/744.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Airliewood&quot;}" role="button" title="Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Airliewood&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/744.jpg" width="535" height="453" alt="Airliewood" title="Airliewood in Holly Springs, Mississippi, is a fine example of a Gothic Revival house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/745.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Tate County Courthouse&quot;}" role="button" title="The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Tate County Courthouse&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/745.jpg" width="535" height="673" alt="Tate County Courthouse" title="The Tate County Courthouse in Senatobia, Mississippi, is built in the Romanesque style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/746.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosedale&quot;}" role="button" title="Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Rosedale&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/746.jpg" width="535" height="481" alt="Rosedale" title="Rosedale in Columbus, Mississippi, is an antebellum Italianate style house. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/747.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Shadowlawn&quot;}" role="button" title="Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Shadowlawn&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/747.jpg" width="535" height="347" alt="Shadowlawn" title="Many Mississippians combined the Greek Revival style with Gothic Revival and Italianate to produce an eclectic style. Shadowlawn in Columbus, Mississippi, is eclectic style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/748.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;L-shape Victorian Vernacular forms&quot;}" role="button" title="Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;L-shape Victorian Vernacular forms&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/748.jpg" width="535" height="397" alt="L-shape Victorian Vernacular forms" title="Houses built in the Victorian Vernacular style often had the L-shape floor plan. Drawing by Richard Cawthon. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/749.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Christian Schwartz House&quot;}" role="button" title="The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Christian Schwartz House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/749.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Christian Schwartz House" title="The Schwartz House in Natchez is Second Empire style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/750.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Keyhole House&quot;}" role="button" title="The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-7091-99RcugXpxg8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Keyhole House&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/750.jpg" width="535" height="401" alt="Keyhole House" title="The Keyhole House in Natchez is among the many houses in the Queen Anne style. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/architecture-in-mississippi-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Tue, 01 Dec 2009 11:00:00 +0000 usnext 7091 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/lesson-plan/architecture-in-mississippi-lesson-plan <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Architecture in Mississippi Lesson Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Mon, 11/30/2009 - 14:59</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><h2><span class="caps">OVERVIEW</span></h2> <p>Studying the architecture of the communities in our state can reveal new insights into our history and culture. Using examples of a log cabin and a more ornate Federal style house, students can easily draw conclusions about differences in ways of living. This lesson will encourage further investigation of a variety of architectural styles used throughout the state’s history and a consideration of how our buildings reflect who we are and the realities of our world from one time period to another.</p> <h2><span class="caps">CONNECTION</span> TO <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">CURRICULUM</span></h2> <p>Mississippi Studies Framework: Competencies 1, 2, and 3</p> <h2><span class="caps">TEACHING</span> <span class="caps">LEVELS</span></h2> <p>Grades 4 (with modifications) through 12</p> <h2><span class="caps">MATERIALS</span></h2> <ul><li>The two <cite>Mississippi History Now</cite> articles on architecture: <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</a> and <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</a></li> <li>Large sheets of paper for guidebook, preferably “sketch pad” size</li> <li>Markers</li> </ul><h2><span class="caps">OBJECTIVES</span></h2> <p>Students will:</p> <ul><li>Realize how the architecture of a place reflects its history, geography, and culture;</li> <li>Distinguish between vernacular architecture and formal architectural styles;</li> <li>Create a Mississippi Architecture Guidebook.</li> </ul><h2><span class="caps">OPENING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <p>Copy the opening paragraph from the <cite>Mississippi History Now</cite> article, <a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</a> on an overhead or white board for students to read and consider. Lead them to talk about specific ways architecture can tell something about the history, geography, and culture of a place. If possible, use well-known buildings in the local community (at least one of vernacular style and one of a more formal style) for students to identify differences and to speculate on the “stories” of each one. Or, use the photographs from the two articles.</p> <h2><span class="caps">DEVELOPING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Have students explore the meaning of the term “vernacular architecture” by having them read the first paragraph under that section in the first article. They should construct a web for their notes that contains the various elements of vernacular architecture.</li> <li>Have students read the section on vernacular architecture, paying attention to each type mentioned in the article: <cite>mounds, French, British, Spanish</cite>, and <cite>Anglo-American</cite>. Ask them to think about this question as they read: How does early construction in Mississippi reflect the definition of vernacular architecture?</li> <li>For each type of vernacular architecture (in italics above), students, working in small groups, will write an answer to the above question. Their answer should contain at least two pieces of evidence.</li> <li>Ask students to read the two paragraphs entitled “Federal Style” and to think about differences between the vernacular style and this more formal style of architecture. Have them write differences in their notes and discuss changes in society, economy, and transportation that would enable residents to employ this different style of architecture in their buildings.</li> <li>To uncover specific information about the remaining architectural styles used in Mississippi, students will develop a Mississippi Architecture Guidebook. Each small group of 2 to 3 members will investigate one of the vernacular or formal architectural styles described in the <cite>Mississippi History Now</cite> articles. They will identify its characteristics, its origin, and will cite examples of the style found across the state and if possible, in their local community. This information will be compiled on a large “sketch-pad” size paper and should include pictures or drawings of the examples.</li> <li>Students will assemble the pages of their guidebook and will present it to the school library for display and use as a resource.</li> <li>Teacher will ask students what they think about preserving the state’s “physical heritage,” and then lead a classroom discussion on historical preservation.</li> </ol><h2><span class="caps">CONCLUDING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Ask students to “build” the house of their dreams based on one of the architectural styles they have studied. They can either draw a picture of it, design a model, or write an essay describing it. They must cite reasons for the particular style they have chosen.</li> </ol><h2><span class="caps">ASSESSING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Participation in large-group discussion</li> <li>Note completion exercises</li> <li>Participation in small-group activity</li> <li>“Dream House” assignment</li> </ol><h2><span class="caps">EXTENDING</span> <span class="caps">THE</span> <span class="caps">LESSON</span></h2> <ol><li>Collect pictures of buildings in the community and develop a local architecture guidebook.</li> </ol></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lp-author--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lp-author field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item">Martha Hutson</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-issue--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-issue.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-issue.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-issue field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-during-the-20th-century" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi During the 20th Century</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/architecture-in-mississippi-from-prehistoric-to-1900" hreflang="en">Architecture in Mississippi: From Prehistoric to 1900</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Theme</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/20" hreflang="en">European settlement</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/24" hreflang="en">Native American</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Time Period</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1" hreflang="en">The First Peoples to 1518</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/6" hreflang="en">Promise and Peril, 1903–1927</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/7" hreflang="en">Bridging Hardship, 1928-1945</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/8" hreflang="en">Forging Ahead, 1946–Present</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Mon, 30 Nov 2009 20:59:59 +0000 usnext 7092 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Capitals and Capitols: The Places and Spaces of Mississippi's Seat of Government Lesson Plan http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/lesson-plan/capitals-and-capitols-the-places-and-spaces-of-mississippis-seat-of-government-lesson-plan <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Capitals and Capitols: The Places and Spaces of Mississippi&#039;s Seat of Government Lesson Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--lesson-plan.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Thu, 08/09/2007 - 20:49</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>OVERVIEW</h2> <p>The capital of a nation as well as a state has sentimental meaning to its citizens. It is this significant status given to capitals that can cause regional conflict within a state or nation. Mississippi is no exception to these political struggles in the establishment of its state capital. Mississippi’s capital was relocated for various reasons throughout the history of the state even after the current capital of Jackson was selected in 1821.</p> <h2>CURRICULAR CONNECTIONS</h2> <p>Mississippi Studies Framework: Competencies 1, 3 and 4.</p> <h2>TEACHING LEVELS</h2> <p>Grades 7 through 12.</p> <h2>MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT</h2> <ul><li><em>Mississippi History Now</em> article</li> <li>Whiteboard and marker</li> <li>Unlined paper for maps</li> <li>Pens/pencils</li> <li>Notebook paper to copy charts</li> <li>Art supplies for projects</li> </ul><h2>OBJECTIVES</h2> <ul><li>On a student-created map of the state, students will locate the cities that have served as Mississippi’s capitals.</li> <li>Students will determine the reasons why a specific location was chosen to serve as the state capital of Mississippi.</li> <li>Students will design a project on the history of Mississippi’s capitals and capitols.</li> </ul><h2>OPENING THE LESSON</h2> <p>Ask class to imagine that they are establishing a new capital in the state of Mississippi. Or perhaps, the students are travelers to an uninhabited land. In the land, or the state, they must establish a capital city. Ask the class to determine what factors should be considered when establishing their capital city. Record the student responses on the board. Explain to the students that throughout the history of the state of Mississippi, the capital of the state was relocated a number of times for various reason. Tell the students that today in class they will study the events that brought about the relocation of the state’s capital.</p> <h2>DEVELOPING THE LESSON</h2> <ul><li>The teacher will instruct the students to skim the <em>Mississippi History Now</em> article and make a list of the various cities that have served as the state’s capital. Students may work alone or with a partner for this portion of the lesson.</li> <li>Instruct the students to locate the cities that have served as the state’s capital on a student-created map of the state. Allow the students to share their maps with the class.</li> <li>The teacher will ask student volunteers to make suggestions as to why geographically these cities may have been chosen as sites for the state’s capital.</li> <li>The teacher will instruct the students to create a chart similar to the one shown below. Students should complete the information on the chart by using the <em>Mississippi History Now</em> article. Students should be allowed to work with partners for this portion of the lesson.</li> </ul><table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="width: 100%;"><thead><tr><th class="text-align-center" colspan="4" scope="col"><strong>Capitals and Capitols of Mississippi</strong></th> </tr></thead><tbody><tr><td style="width: 25%;"><strong>City</strong></td> <td style="width: 25%;"><strong>Date</strong></td> <td style="width: 25%;"><strong>Reason for Selection</strong></td> <td style="width: 25%;"><strong>Government meeting site</strong></td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr><tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr></tbody></table><ul><li> <p>Place a copy of the chart on the board. Ask for the student groups to share answers from their charts. The teacher can record their answers on the board. After the information has been recorded on the chart, ask the students to draw conclusions or generalizations about the issues that influenced Mississippi’s choice for capital cities.</p> </li> <li> <p>Allow the students to work in groups to create a project that honors an event related to the history of Mississippi’s capitals and capitols. Allow the students to choose one of the following types of exhibits: video, model or display.</p> </li> </ul><h2>CLOSING THE LESSON</h2> <p>The teacher will allow the students to share their projects with the class.</p> <h2>EXTENDING THE LESSON</h2> <ol><li>Allow the students to take a field trip to the <a href="https://mmh.mdah.ms.gov/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Museum of Mississippi History</a> in Jackson.</li> <li>Allow the students to research the styles of architecture used to design the capitol buildings of Mississippi. Discuss with the students the symbolism of architecture.</li> </ol></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lp-author--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-lp-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lp-author field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item">Karla Smith</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-issue--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-issue.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-issue.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-issue field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/issue/capitals-and-capitols-the-places-and-spaces-of-mississippis-seat-of-government" hreflang="en">Capitals and Capitols: The Places and Spaces of Mississippi’s Seat of Government</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-theme-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Theme</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/23" hreflang="en">Mississippi Government</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period-lp--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--node--lesson-plan.html.twig * field--field-time-period-lp.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period-lp field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Time Period</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/6" hreflang="en">Promise and Peril, 1903–1927</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/7" hreflang="en">Bridging Hardship, 1928-1945</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/8" hreflang="en">Forging Ahead, 1946–Present</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Fri, 10 Aug 2007 01:49:09 +0000 usnext 6851 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov Capitals and Capitols: The Places and Spaces of Mississippi’s Seat of Government http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/capitals-and-capitols-the-places-and-spaces-of-mississippis-seat-of-government <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Capitals and Capitols: The Places and Spaces of Mississippi’s Seat of Government</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Tue, 08/09/2005 - 20:33</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> September 2009 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by J. Michael Bunn and Clay Williams <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/23" hreflang="en">Mississippi Government</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2" hreflang="en">Cultural Crossroads, 1519–1798</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/3" hreflang="en">Joining the United States, 1799–1832</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/5" hreflang="en">The World Remade, 1866–1902</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/6" hreflang="en">Promise and Peril, 1903–1927</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/7" hreflang="en">Bridging Hardship, 1928-1945</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/8" hreflang="en">Forging Ahead, 1946–Present</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The history of Mississippi’s capitals and capitols involves several towns and nearly a dozen buildings. Throughout Mississippi’s territorial period and well into its statehood, choosing a permanent capital and securing adequate meeting space for government officials were constant struggles.</p> <h2>Natchez</h2> <p>When the United States Congress created the Mississippi Territory on April 7, 1798, out of land ceded by Spain, Natchez was chosen as the capital since it was already a substantial frontier settlement on the Mississippi River. No official capitol was built, and officials met wherever they could find space.</p> <p>Even Winthrop Sargent, territorial governor appointed by President John Adams, was forced to work out of private residences, dating much of his correspondence from “Near Natchez,” “The Grove Plantation,” or “Bellemont.”</p> <p>The General Assembly did not have a place to hold regular meetings until the territorial government secured the use of “Government House” from the military. The house was located on the bluff near old Fort Rosalie and had been used by the Spanish during their occupation of Natchez.</p> <h2>Washington</h2> <p>Political rivalry between local Republican and Federalist party members led to the 1802 relocation of the territorial capital to Washington, a small community six miles east of Natchez. Republicans, who gained power in the 1800 election of Thomas Jefferson as U.S. president, sought to move the capital away from what they had long viewed as the corrupt influence of “aristocratic” Natchez, a Federalist Party stronghold. No state capitol was built in Washington either, and the General Assembly often met in rented space in a tavern owned by Charles de France.</p> <h2>Back to Natchez</h2> <p>Upon Mississippi’s admission to the United States in 1817, the state constitutional convention determined that the first session of the legislature would meet in Natchez. Despite the convention’s act, the first session opened in Washington, but subsequent sessions met in Natchez until 1820. During this time the legislature often met in Texada, a privately owned house in Natchez which still stands today.</p> <p>By 1821 efforts were underway to place the capital in the center of the state. The Treaty of Doak’s Stand, negotiated with the Choctaw Indians in 1820, had nearly doubled the amount of Mississippi land open to settlement. The rapid population shift away from the Mississippi River region to these new lands brought a decline in the political and economic power of Natchez and led to the end of its days as the center of the state’s political life.</p> <h2>Columbia</h2> <p>As a first step to select a new capital, legislators chose in 1821 to temporarily locate the seat of government at Columbia. Meeting at Stovall Springs Hotel, they appointed a three-member commission to locate a site on a navigable river for a permanent capital near the center of the state. Thomas Hinds, William Lattimore, and James Patton were chosen for the task; Patton did not serve and was later replaced by Peter Vandorn.</p> <p>The commissioners decided on Le Fleur’s Bluff on the Pearl River as the most favorable location for the capital. Named for the operator of a trading post, the site sufficiently met the search criteria: it was on high ground near a navigable waterway and had good water and fertile soil. The legislature accepted the commission’s recommendation and ordered the planning of the town of Jackson, named in honor of Andrew Jackson.</p> <h2>Jackson</h2> <p>Abram de France, the brother of the owner of the Washington tavern the territorial legislature had used as a meeting place, and Bennet Hines were selected to construct the first statehouse in the new capital. The contract called for a 2,400-square-foot building. Their simple two-story brick structure, the first state-owned capitol, was located on the north corner of Capitol and President streets. The legislature first met in the new statehouse December 23, 1822.</p> <p>Despite the prestige of being the state capital, the town of Jackson grew slowly. The city was less of a town than an isolated wilderness community, and for the next ten years several serious efforts to relocate the capital to relatively more affluent cities in the region were narrowly defeated. Jackson’s status as capital was not secured until the 1832 constitutional convention mandated it would remain the center of government until at least 1850.</p> <h2>Architect William Nichols</h2> <p>The legislature then called for the construction of a larger and more permanent statehouse in 1833. Architect John Lawrence started on the project the next year with a Gothic Revival design. Disappointed with his slow progress and faulty craftsmanship, the state replaced him in 1835 with William Nichols and had Lawrence’s false start torn down. One of the South’s premier architects, Nichols was architect of the North Carolina and Alabama statehouses. Despite Nichols’s ability, work on his Greek Revival capitol progressed slowly over the next several years as the project was delayed by economic depression, a lack of skilled labor, and shortages in building materials. Workers were still adding finishing touches when the legislature first met in the building in January 1839.</p> <h2>Capital on the move</h2> <p>The American Civil War (1861-1865) caused the next movement of the seat of government. During the conflict, Union troops occupied Jackson on several occasions, forcing most government officials to meet elsewhere in the state. Macon and Columbus both served temporarily as capital and hosted legislative sessions. In addition, some government officials operated at various times at Enterprise and Meridian.</p> <p>The statehouse survived the war, but by the 1890s, it was in disrepair and could no longer meet the space needs of state government.</p> <h2>Architect Theodore Link</h2> <p>Attempts were made as early as 1896 to have a new capitol constructed, but it was not until Governor Andrew H. Longino’s urging during the 1900 legislative session that a new capitol was authorized. The project was financed by nearly one million dollars in back taxes owed by railroad companies. St. Louis architect Theodore Link was selected to construct the facility on the site of the old state penitentiary. Link designed the massive capitol in the Beaux Arts style, which featured elements from several classical architectural forms. Its elaborately decorated interior included various types of marble and was illuminated by 4,750 electric lights, a recent invention at the time of construction. The facility was dedicated June 3, 1903.</p> <h2>The capitol turns 100;</h2> <h2>The old capitol becomes a museum</h2> <p>One hundred years later on June 3, 2003, Mississippians celebrated the anniversary of their capitol. <a href="/issue/centennial-celebration-of-the-new-capitol" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Click here</a> for the speech historian David Sansing, Ph.D., delivered at the celebration.</p> <p>The 1839 Greek Revival capitol is now the Old Capitol Museum and it re-opened in 2009 after a three-year restoration following damage sustained from Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Exhibits now interpret the distinguished history of the building, the role of government, and the importance of historic preservation.</p> <p><em>J. Michael Bunn is executive director, Historic Chattahoochee Commission, and Clay Williams is director, Old Capitol Museum, Jackson, Mississippi.</em></p> <h2>Definitions</h2> <p><strong>Capital –</strong> The city or town which is the official seat of government in a country, state, or region.</p> <p><strong>Capitol –</strong> The building in which a legislative body meets; a statehouse.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>Bibliography:</h3> <h4><strong>Books</strong><br /> Bettersworth, John K. <em>Mississippi: A History</em>. Austin: The Steck Company, 1959.</h4> <p>Bettersworth, John K. and James W. Silver, eds. <em>Mississippi in the Confederacy</em>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1961.</p> <p>Clark, Thomas D. and John D.W. Guice.<em> The Old Southwest, 1795-1830</em>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996.</p> <p>Cox, James L. <em>The Mississippi Almanac</em>. Yazoo City: Computer Search and Research, 2001.</p> <p>Cross, Ralph D., Robert W. Wales, and Charles T. Traylor. <em>Atlas of Mississippi</em>. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1974.</p> <p>Gleason, David K., Mary Warren Miller, and Ronald W. Miller. <em>The Great Houses of Natchez</em>. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1986.</p> <p>James, D. Clayton. <em>Antebellum Natchez</em>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968.</p> <p>Lowry, Robert, and William H. McCardle.<em> A History of Mississippi</em>. Spartanburg, S.C.: The Reprint Company, 1978.</p> <p>McCain, William D. <em>The Story of Jackson</em>. Jackson: J.F. Hyer Publishing Company, 1953.</p> <p>McLemore, Richard A., ed. <em>A History of Mississippi, Volume 1</em>. Jackson: University &amp; College Press of Mississippi, 1973.</p> <p>Rowland, Dunbar. <em>History of Mississippi</em>. Spartanburg, S.C.: The Reprint Company, 1978.</p> <p>Rowland, Dunbar.<em> Mississippi Territorial Archives, Volume 1</em>. Nashville: Press of Brandon Printing Company, 1905.</p> <p>Sansing, David G., Sim C. Callon, and Carolyn V. Smith. <em>Natchez: An Illustrated History</em>. Natchez: Plantation Publishing Company, 1995.</p> <p>Skates, John Ray. <em>Mississippi’s Old Capitol: Biography of a Building</em>. Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1990.</p> <p>Sydnor, Charles S. <em>A Gentleman of the Old Natchez Region: Benjamin L.C. Wailes</em>. Durham: Duke University Press, 1938.</p> <h4><strong>Official papers</strong><br /> Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Mississippi, 1817-1857</h4> <p>Constitution of the State of Mississippi, 1817</p> <p><em>Journal of the Constitutional Convention, State of Mississippi, 1817</em></p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/162.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Assembly Hall – de France’s Tavern in Washington, also known as Assembly Hall because of its use by the Territorial government. 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Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6809-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;New Capitol – Interior of the New Capitol. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;New Capitol&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/168.jpg" width="450" height="640" alt="New Capitol" title="New Capitol – Interior of the New Capitol. Courtesy Mississippi Department of Archives and History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/169.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Mississippi counties, 1832. Source: John K. Bettersworth, Mississippi: A History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Mississippi counties, 1832&quot;}" role="button" title="Mississippi counties, 1832. Source: John K. Bettersworth, Mississippi: A History." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6809-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Mississippi counties, 1832. Source: John K. Bettersworth, Mississippi: A History.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Mississippi counties, 1832&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/169.jpg" width="450" height="637" alt="Mississippi counties, 1832" title="Mississippi counties, 1832. Source: John K. Bettersworth, Mississippi: A History." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-lesson-plan--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-lesson-plan.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-lesson-plan field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/lesson-plan/capitals-and-capitols-the-places-and-spaces-of-mississippis-seat-of-government-lesson-plan" hreflang="en">Capitals and Capitols: The Places and Spaces of Mississippi&#039;s Seat of Government Lesson Plan</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Wed, 10 Aug 2005 01:33:28 +0000 usnext 6809 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov The Architecture of Rosalie http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/the-architecture-of-rosalie <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--issue.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Architecture of Rosalie</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--issue.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/user/5" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">usnext</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--issue.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Sun, 08/07/2005 - 21:45</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-publication-date.html.twig * field--datetime.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> January 2005 <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-publication-date--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> by Cheryl Munyer Branyan <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/mshistorynow/templates/field/field--node--field-author--issue.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-theme--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-theme.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-theme.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-theme field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/11" hreflang="en">Architecture and Preservation</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-time-period--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-time-period.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-time-period.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-time-period field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/taxonomy/term/4" hreflang="en">Cotton Kingdom, 1833–1865</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--issue.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Rosalie mansion, which sits high on a Mississippi River bluff in Natchez, Mississippi, is one of the city’s most historic homes.</p> <p>The Rosalie story begins in December 1820 when lumber mill owner and planter Peter Little purchased land along the Mississippi River bluff upon which to build his home. He paid $3,000 for twenty-two acres known as the “Old Fort.” Little named the estate Rosalie after Fort Rosalie, the fort that the French had established on that land in 1716. The house was completed in 1823 and lived in by Little and his wife, Eliza Lowe, until their deaths. She died in 1853 and he in December 1856.</p> <h2>Antebellum period</h2> <p>Since Rosalie was built before the American Civil War, it is known as an antebellum structure. Antebellum is Latin for “before the war.” Its architecture is the classic style. The word “architecture” means the art or science of building. It can also mean a method or style of building. From architectural designs of the earliest man-made structures, such as ancient huts and tombs, to the towering skyscrapers of modern cities, architecture reflects the taste, craftsmanship, and technology of the time in which it was created. Architects, the designers of buildings, use the materials, tools, and skills available during their time to create a structure that not only creates a usable space in which to work or live, but a design that appeals to the society’s tastes and culture.</p> <p>Thus, to study the architectural style of Rosalie, it is important to first understand the period in which the house was built. In 1820, early Natchez bustled with activity and was home to many wealthy people. The wealth, a product of the cotton plantation system, enabled the prosperous to live lavishly in grand, stylish homes. In the early 19th century, the newly formed United States had welcomed Mississippi as a state in 1817. Natchez served as the state capital until 1821. Even after the Mississippi Legislature relocated the state capital to Jackson, Natchez continued to grow and flourish. In 1822, Mississippian John Quitman, a young lawyer, wrote, “No part of the United States holds out better prospects for a young lawyer. . . .Cotton planting is the most lucrative business that can be followed. Some planters net $50,000.00 from a single crop.” This lucrative cotton industry was based on enslaved labor.</p> <h2>Architectural style</h2> <p>Architectural historians categorize styles of American architecture into different periods. The Rosalie mansion falls into the “Early Classical Revival” or “Federal” period. The popularity of this style is largely credited to the influence of the third U.S. president, Thomas Jefferson, who was impressed by the clean lines, proportions, and symmetry of Greek and Roman designed buildings. Jefferson’s home in Virginia, Monticello, reflected those classical characteristics. Some key identifying features of Early Classical Revival style architecture are:</p> <p>1. a façade dominated by an entry porch with four columns;<br /> 2. a semicircular or elliptical fanlight over a paneled entry door; and,<br /> 3. windows in symmetrical rows around a central door.</p> <p>The front side of Rosalie shows all three of those features. The red brick structure has an impressive entry porch and columns, elliptical fanlights over both the first- and second-story front doors, and symmetrical, double-hung sash windows. When looking at Rosalie, one immediately notices the large, dominating triangular pediment supported by four white columns forming a grand entry portico reminiscent of Greek temples. In a city with many impressive mansions, Rosalie’s entrance is perhaps the most noteworthy. The Historic Natchez Foundation notes that the design of Rosalie’s portico, along with other architectural features, produced “the first complete form of the ‘grand mansion’ common to Natchez.”</p> <p>Other notable architectural features of the front façade include the narrow windows called sidelights flanking the two pairs of eight-paneled doors. These elements not only add to the symmetry of the design, but allow extra light to enter the central hall when the doors are closed. The triangular pediment is accented by an elliptical window, fashionable for the time, that allows for extra ventilation and light in the attic. The pediment is also decorated with tooth-like “dentil moldings.” The hipped roof has a balustrade at its peak enclosing an area for rooftop observation, which one could reach by stairs in the attic.</p> <p>The floor plan of the mansion is typical of houses built in its period with a central hall and rooms off to the sides. As one enters the Rosalie mansion, a wide hall continues to the back door. There are two parlors to the left and a library, dining room, and stairway to the right. The parlors were used for entertaining company and for special family occasions, while the library across the hall was less formal and was used like modern-day dens or family rooms. The formal dining room was where the family ate their meals, which were prepared and served by enslaved people.</p> <p>This layout is repeated on the second floor for the four bedrooms. This design, with numerous windows and high ceilings, allowed for air circulation, a necessity before the days of modern air-conditioning. The house also has an attic and basement. The rear of the house, with its six columns that reach to two stories, is as impressive as its front. Behind Rosalie are the two-story brick kitchen and servants’s quarters and the smokehouse, the only two extant, or surviving, outbuildings on the Rosalie estate.</p> <p>All of these features combine to create a livable design that has held its appeal through time. One of the most popular and loved mansions in Natchez today, there are many who have remarked on Rosalie's beauty throughout the years. During the American Civil War, Rosalie served as headquarters for Federal troops. The wife of Union General Walter Q. Gresham later wrote that Rosalie was “the handsomest of the residences” along the Natchez bluff. Modern home builders have developed houses in the fashion of Rosalie.</p> <p>Traditionally, it is said that Peter Little’s brother-in-law, James Shyrach Griffin, was a well-known architect from Baltimore, Maryland, who moved to Natchez and designed Rosalie. Historians are working to find confirming documentation. While undoubtedly designed by a professional architect and built by professional tradesmen, enslaved labor almost assuredly played a role in the building of the mansion.</p> <h2>Mississippi DAR</h2> <p>In 1858, two years after the death of Little, the Rosalie mansion was home to another family. According to courthouse records, Andrew Wilson and his wife, Ann Eliza Bowman, were given Rosalie as a gift from Ann Eliza’s brother, Elam Bowman. Bowman had purchased the property that January from the Commissioner of the Court. The Wilson descendants would live in Rosalie for 100 years, until the mid-1900s. In 1938, when the last granddaughters began to grow older, they decided to sell the estate to the Mississippi State Society, Daughters of the American Revolution. The DAR looked after the house and the granddaughters continued to live at Rosalie. Gradually the granddaughters sold their furnishings to the DAR to sustain themselves. The last Wilson descendant to live at Rosalie, Annie Rumble Marsh, died in 1958.</p> <p>The earliest known floor plans of the Rosalie mansion and surviving outbuildings are those of the Historic American Buildings Survey. The 1936 documents made by government workers show details including measurements and construction materials.</p> <p>The Mississippi State Society, Daughters of the American Revolution continue to preserve Rosalie and its furnishings to look the way it did when the Wilsons lived there. It is open daily for tours. Visit its website at <a href="https://rosaliemansion.com/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Rosalie Mansion">https://rosaliemansion.com/</a>.</p> <p><em>Cheryl Munyer Branyan, manager at Rosalie from 1994 to 1999, is now branch director, Historic Jefferson College, for the Mississippi Department of Archives and History. </em></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-sources-formatted--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-sources-formatted.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-sources-formatted.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-sources-formatted field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__items"> <div class="field__item"><h3>References:<strong> </strong></h3> <p>Gresham, Matilda. <em>Life of Walter Quintin Gresham 1832-1895.</em> Chicago: Rand McNally, 1919.</p> <p>Jones, Katherine M. <em>The Plantation South</em>. New York: The BobbsMerrill Company, 1957.</p> <p>Historic Natchez Foundation. Draft of Heritage Tourism Manual.1999.</p> <p>Marsh, Annie Rumble. Recording made in the Rosalie Library. Rosalie Collection. March 1955</p> <p>McAlester, Virginia and Lee. <em>Great American Houses and Their Architectural Styles. </em>New York: Abbeville Press, 1994.</p> <p>Natchez Metropolitan Planning Commission, Adams County Courthouse, Adams County Landmarks Inventory, City Tax Map 60 Lot 30, Block 1, Rosalie, Broadway and Orleans.</p> <p>Wood, Lucianne and Sarah Webster Harrison. <em>Rosalie: A Mansion of Natchez. </em>Natchez: Myrtle Bank Publishers, 1978.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-images--issue.html.twig * field--node--field-images.html.twig * field--node--issue.html.twig * field--field-images.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-images field--type-image field--label-hidden 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<!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/148.jpg" width="550" height="413" alt="Rosalie mansion" title="Rosalie mansion, one of the most historic homes in Natchez, Mississippi. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/149.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Portrait of Peter Little (1781-1856), the original owner of 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loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/150.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Portrait of Eliza Lowe (1792-1853), the wife of Peter Little. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Portrait of Eliza Lowe&quot;}" role="button" title="Portrait of Eliza Lowe (1792-1853), the wife of Peter Little. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6847-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" 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HABS,MISS,1-Natch,1-.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;First floor plan at Rosalie&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/151.jpg" width="550" height="448" alt="First floor plan at Rosalie" title="First floor plan at Rosalie. 1936 drawing courtesy the Historic American Buildings Survey and the Historic American Engineering Record collections, Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress. Call no. 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HABS,MISS,1-Natch,1-.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Second floor plan at Rosalie&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/152.jpg" width="550" height="447" alt="Second floor plan at Rosalie" title="Second floor plan at Rosalie. 1936 drawing courtesy the Historic American Buildings Survey and the Historic American Engineering Record collections, Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress. Call no. HABS,MISS,1-Natch,1-." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/153.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie&quot;}" role="button" title="Parlor at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6847-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/153.jpg" width="550" height="368" alt="Parlor at Rosalie" title="Parlor at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/154.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation&quot;}" role="button" title="Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6847-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/154.jpg" width="550" height="413" alt="Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation" title="Parlor at Rosalie after 1988 renovation. 2001 photograph courtesy of photographer Cheryl Munyer Branyan." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/155.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Bedroom at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bedroom at Rosalie&quot;}" role="button" title="Bedroom at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6847-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Bedroom at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bedroom at Rosalie&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/155.jpg" width="550" height="385" alt="Bedroom at Rosalie" title="Bedroom at Rosalie, 1960s photograph by Sam Collier. Courtesy of Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Call no. PI/HH/M57.7." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'colorbox_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/sites/default/files/imported-images/156.jpg" aria-controls="colorbox" aria-label="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Aerial view of Rosalie, Late 1990s photograph courtesy of photographer Tommy Ferrell.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Aerial view of Rosalie&quot;}" role="button" title="Aerial view of Rosalie, Late 1990s photograph courtesy of photographer Tommy Ferrell." data-colorbox-gallery="gallery-issue-6847-hDmTRAfc4n8" class="colorbox" data-cbox-img-attrs="{&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Aerial view of Rosalie, Late 1990s photograph courtesy of photographer Tommy Ferrell.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Aerial view of Rosalie&quot;}"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img src="/sites/default/files/imported-images/156.jpg" width="550" height="386" alt="Aerial view of Rosalie" title="Aerial view of Rosalie, Late 1990s photograph courtesy of photographer Tommy Ferrell." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/colorbox/templates/colorbox-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap4/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> Mon, 08 Aug 2005 02:45:25 +0000 usnext 6847 at http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov